Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Gagné’s instructional design model on the phonological awareness and problem-solving abilities of students with intellectual disabilities. The research employed a quasi-experimental method, using a pretest-posttest design with a control group. The study population consisted of all first- and second-grade students with intellectual disabilities in Khomam City during the 2022–2023 academic year. A sample of 30 students was randomly selected and assigned to either the experimental or control group, with 15 participants in each. Data were collected during the pretest and posttest phases using the Solaimani and Dastjerdi Phonological Awareness Test (2003–2004) and the London Tower Test (1982). Gagné’s instructional design model was implemented in ten 45-minute sessions for the experimental group, while the control group received traditional instruction from their teachers. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS-24 software through univariate and multivariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The results indicated that the experimental group showed significantly higher post-test scores in phonological awareness compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Additionally, the experimental group demonstrated better problem-solving ability than the control group, though this difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Based on these findings, it can be concluded that Gagné’s instructional design model – with its systematic, step-by-step approach to lesson design – enhances problem-solving skills and phonological awareness in students with intellectual disabilities by effectively utilizing their cognitive abilities and memory recall processes.
Keywords: Gagné’s Instructional Design Model, phonological awareness, problem-solving ability, intellectual disabilities, special education
 
 
 
Extended Abstract

Introduction

A significant subset of students in every educational community experiences substantial difficulties in academic performance and learning compared to their peers. As defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2022), intellectual disability represents a neurodevelopmental disorder of biological origin. This condition is characterized by:

Clinically significant impairments in intellectual functioning (including deficits in reasoning, problem-solving, planning, abstract thinking, and judgment)
Concurrent limitations in adaptive functioning across conceptual, social, and practical domains
These developmental challenges must onset prior to 18 years of age to meet diagnostic criteria.

Research Question
This study aims to answer the following question:
Does Gagné’s instructional design model significantly enhance phonological awareness and problem-solving abilities in students with mild intellectual disabilities?

Literature Review

Students with mild intellectual disabilities typically demonstrate significant challenges in reading and related literacy skills due to developmental delays (Hallahan & Kauffman, 1994). While typically developing children acquire reading skills with relative ease, this apparent simplicity can lead to the mistaken assumption that reading is not a cognitively demanding process. In reality, reading constitutes a sophisticated linguistic operation involving the decoding of written symbols that represent spoken language (Moats, 2020). This complexity explains why special education students and children with developmental impairments often exhibit reduced phonological awareness, a key factor underlying their reading difficulties.
Research consistently demonstrates the efficacy of phonological awareness interventions for students with reading difficulties. Karimi et al. (2013) found that systematic phonological awareness instruction significantly enhances reading comprehension in students with reading disorders. Similarly, Mostaghimzadeh and Soleimani (2005) established that phonological awareness training effectively improves reading abilities among second-grade students with intellectual disabilities.
The implementation of evidence-based instructional design models can substantially mitigate educational challenges for students with intellectual disabilities while providing crucial support for special education practitioners. Among these models, Gagné's instructional design framework offers particular promise due to its systematic approach to skill acquisition.

Methodology

Research consistently demonstrates the efficacy of phonological awareness interventions for students with reading difficulties. Karimi et al. (2013) found that systematic phonological awareness instruction significantly enhances reading comprehension in students with reading disorders. Similarly, Mostaghimzadeh and Soleimani (2005) established that phonological awareness training effectively improves reading abilities among second-grade students with intellectual disabilities.
The implementation of evidence-based instructional design models can substantially mitigate educational challenges for students with intellectual disabilities while providing crucial support for special education practitioners. Among these models, Gagné's instructional design framework offers particular promise due to its systematic approach to skill acquisition.
The study employed two standardized assessment tools:

The Tower of London Test(Shallice, 1982) to evaluate problem-solving skills and executive functioning
The Phonological Awareness Test(Soleimani & Dastjerdi Kazemi, 2010) to measure phonological awareness capabilities

All assessments were administered individually in a controlled, quiet environment separate from instructional settings during both pretest and posttest phases.
The researcher served as the primary interventionist for this study. Prior to implementation, the researcher completed a specialized online training program in instructional design based on Gagné's model to ensure treatment fidelity. The intervention content was developed following Gagné's (1985) instructional design principles, primarily derived from his seminal work The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction. All instructional materials underwent rigorous review and received approval from the research supervisor and advisory committee before being implemented in the study.
The assessment instruments were administered to both experimental and control groups during pretest and posttest phases. Following data collection, analyses were conducted using SPSS version 24, employing both univariate and multivariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA and MANCOVA). Prior to conducting these analyses, all necessary statistical assumptions were verified.
The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to evaluate the normality of data distribution. Pretest scores for phonological awareness were adjusted using corrected mean and standard deviation values (Myers, 2013) to account for baseline differences. The results confirmed that the data met the assumption of normality, thereby justifying the use of parametric statistical tests without modification.

Results

Table 1 presents the results of the univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) comparing phonological awareness test scores between the experimental and control groups.
Table 1: Results of Univariate Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for the Phonological Awareness Test Between Experimental and Control Groups




Sources


SS


df


MS


F


P-value


ή²


power




Between Group


388.456


1


388.456


35.879


0.0001


0.580


1




Error


281.523


26


10.828


 


 


 


 




Total


17422.31


29


 


 


 


 


 




The ANCOVA results presented in Table 1 reveal a statistically significant difference in phonological awareness between the experimental and control groups (F (1, 28) = 35.87, p <.001, partial η² =.58). This finding demonstrates that Gagné's instructional design model significantly enhanced phonological awareness among students with mild intellectual disabilities. The large effect size (partial η² =.58) indicates that 58% of the variance in posttest scores, after controlling for baseline differences, was attributable to the experimental intervention.
Multivariate analysis using Pillai's Trace further confirmed the intervention's significant effect on phonological awareness (V =.325, F (1, 28) = 6.026, p =.007). The substantial eta squared value (η² =.841) suggests that approximately 84% of the variance between groups can be explained by the treatment effect.
Table 2: Results of Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) for Problem-Solving Performance in Immediate and Delayed Conditions




Sources


Dependent
Variable


SS


df


MS


F


P-value


ή²


power




Group


Posttest Delayed Time
Posttest Immediate Execution


40207.705
99239.828


1
1


40207.705
99239.828


12.533
3.934


0.002
0.058


0.325
0.131


0.926
0.480




Error


Posttest Delayed Time
Posttest Immediate Execution


83411.835
655813.201


26
26


3208.147
25223.585


 


 


 


 




Total


Posttest Delayed Time
Posttest Immediate Execution


640515.00
6711750.00


30
30


 


 


 


 


 




Table 2 displays the MANCOVA results for problem-solving performance. Analysis revealed a statistically significant between-group difference in the delayed condition (F(1, 28) = 12.53, p =.002, partial η² =.32), indicating that 32% of the variance in posttest scores (after controlling for pretest performance) was accounted for by the experimental intervention.
For immediate performance on the Tower of London test, results approached but did not reach statistical significance (F(1, 28) = 3.934, p =.058). This pattern of findings suggests that while Gagné's instructional model significantly improved response latency in delayed problem-solving, it did not yield statistically significant improvements in immediate task execution speed.

Discussion

The findings demonstrate that implementing Gagné's systematic instructional design model in Farsi language instruction significantly enhances phonological awareness among students with mild intellectual disabilities. This model's effectiveness stems from its comprehensive approach to both external and internal learning conditions, offering a logically sequenced framework for instructional delivery.
A particular strength of Gagné's model lies in its initial focus on attention acquisition - a critical phase where educators apply pedagogical expertise to actively engage students and successfully initiate the learning process. The structured nature of this approach appears particularly beneficial for the target population, as it provides clear, scaffolded learning experiences that address their specific educational needs.
Gagné's instructional model promotes deeper learning by systematically activating students' memory systems through explicit connections between new content and prior knowledge. This approach facilitates enhanced retention and recall of Farsi linguistic concepts. The model's effectiveness is further amplified by its provision of individualized feedback and reinforcement, carefully tailored to each student's learning profile, which appears instrumental in improving both Farsi proficiency and phonological awareness.
A particularly impactful component involves the structured incorporation of generalization and transfer strategies. By deliberately practicing phonemic awareness across multiple contexts using varied lexical items, students developed the capacity to apply phonological knowledge flexibly. This targeted emphasis on skill transfer likely constituted a key mechanism underlying the observed improvements in phonological processing abilities.
The study's findings further revealed that Gagné's instructional model significantly enhanced problem-solving abilities in students with mild intellectual disabilities. Comparative analysis demonstrated markedly higher posttest performance in the experimental group relative to controls. Notably, the experimental group exhibited reduced response latency and execution times on the Tower of London test during posttesting.
These results carry particular theoretical significance given that problem-solving represents a complex cognitive process requiring individuals to generate solutions to novel challenges. While the inherent metacognitive limitations associated with intellectual disabilities might predict difficulties in acquiring such higher-order skills, our findings counter this assumption by demonstrating measurable improvement.
The effectiveness of Gagné's approach appears rooted in its systematic engagement of learners through progressively challenging problem scenarios. By repeatedly situating students in contexts requiring strategic application of problem-solving techniques - both within instructional settings and simulated real-world situations - the model facilitates the development of these critical cognitive capacities.

Conclusion

Gagné's instructional design model demonstrated significant positive effects on both phonological awareness and problem-solving performance among students with mild intellectual disabilities. The model's efficacy stems from its systematic integration of research-based instructional sequences that actively engage learners' cognitive abilities, memory systems, and attentional processes. By incorporating these well-structured pedagogical approaches, Gagné's framework effectively supports the development of critical academic and cognitive skills in this student population.
Acknowledgments
This study received ethical approval from the Bio-Medical Research Ethics Committee of the University of Guilan (Approval Code: IR.GUILAN.REC.1401.095). The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable contributions of the educators and administrative personnel at Isar School in Khomam. We extend our sincere appreciation to all participating students and their families for their cooperation throughout this research endeavor.