Psychology of Exceptional Individuals

Abstract Abstract The main objective of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of an emotional recognition intervention on the emotional self-regulation and empathy of children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). The study employed a semi-experimental research design, consisting of a pre-test, a post-test, and a follow-up phase. The statistical population included all children diagnosed with ODD who sought counseling services in Mashhad during the academic year 2023. A total of 30 children were selected as the sample, meeting the inclusion criteria, and subsequently divided into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The study utilized three assessment tools to gather data: the Children Symptom Inventory-4 (Gadow and Sprafkin, 1994), the Emotion Self-Regulation questionnaire (Shields and Cicchetti, 1997), and the Empathy questionnaire for children and adolescents (Overgaauw et al, 2017). The statistical analysis of the data involved using the analysis of variance with repeated measurements. The results revealed that the experimental group's level of self-regulation and empathy significantly improved after the emotional recognition intervention compared to the control group (P < 0.01), and the positive changes were sustained at the one-month follow-up phase (P < 0.01). The study findings indicate that the emotional recognition intervention was found to be efficacious in increasing the emotional self-regulation and empathy skills of children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Keywords: Oppositional Defiant Disorder; Self-regulation; Empathy; Emotional Recognition Intervention.       Extended Abstract Introduction Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a prevalent condition among children and adolescents, characterized by a consistent pattern of irritability, anger, disobedient or provocative behavior, aggression, and spitefulness (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). One contributing factor to rule-breaking, irritability, and aggressive or destructive behaviors in individuals with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is difficulty with emotional self-regulation (Perry et al., 2018; Vazsonyi et al., 2017). In particular, deficits in emotional self-regulation have been linked to impulsive behaviors and involvement in criminal activities (Kleine Deters et al., 2020; Jiang Furthermore, given the prevalence of symptoms such as aggression, irritability, and spitefulness in children and adolescents with ODD, it would be expected that they may exhibit differences in interpersonal relationships and emotion regulation or empathy when compared to typically developing children (Farzadi et al., 2015). Another aspect to consider is that destructive and aggressive behavior in individuals with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) are associated with impaired emotional recognition (Dawel et al., 2012; Schuberth et al., 2019). Difficulty in understanding and encoding emotional states can contribute to increased anger and irritability in ODD patients (Kara et al., 2017). Based on research findings and the knowledge that deficits in emotional self-regulation and empathy can negatively impact individuals with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), it is clear that appropriate interventions can lead to significant improvements in these individuals' issues. Such interventions have the potential to bring about meaningful changes in the rehabilitation of children and adolescents with ODD. Research Question The research question to be investigated in the present study is as follows: "Does an intervention that focuses on emotion recognition have an impact on the emotional self-regulation and empathy skills of students diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)?" Literature Review In a study conducted by Jiang et al. (2016), it was found that children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) have deficits in cognitive reappraisal, rumination, expressive suppression, and disclosure of negative emotions. The research conducted by Pijper et al. (2018) also revealed that boys with ODD, who exhibit poor emotional control, were found to have selective impairments in responses related to empathy. On the other hand, Acland et al. (2021) found that children with ODD who have poor emotion recognition skills exhibit higher rates of overt aggression. Additionally, Staff et al. (2022) discovered that a lack of facial emotion recognition in school-age children is associated with emotional and social problems and may limit the scope of their social interactions and even participation in social activities. Methodology The method of research used was a semi-experimental design with a pre-test, a subsequent test, and a follow-up phase, employing a control group. The target population of the current study comprised all children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder who sought counseling services in Mashhad during the academic year 2024. Out of this group, 30 participants were chosen through a convenience sampling method, and then subsequently 15 individuals were randomly assigned to the experimental group and another 15 individuals to the control group. Results The findings of this study revealed that the experimental group demonstrated significant improvements in emotional self-regulation and empathy skills in the subsequent test and follow-up phase when compared to the control group, whose scores remained relatively unchanged across all three phases. To analyze the data, the analysis of variance test with repeated measurements was adopted. The basic assumptions necessary for the validity of this test were confirmed. The analysis of the results showed that the interaction effect between stages and groups was significant for both self-regulation and empathy. The Bonferroni test confirmed significant differences between the experimental and control groups in both the pre-test and subsequent test phases, as well as in the pre-test and follow-up phases. However, there was no significant difference observed between the subsequent test phase and the follow-up phase, suggesting that the impact of the intervention remained stable over time.   Table 1. Variance analysis with repeated measures to investigate the effects of within and between groups for research variables Component   Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F Sig. Eta Self-regulation Factor 74.467 2 38.233 27.481 0.001 0.495 Factor*Group 69.622 2 34.811 25.021 0.001 0.472 Group 106.711 1 106.711 938.36 0.001 0.569 Empathy Factor 57.267 1.305 43.898 10.197 0.001 0.267 Factor*Group 203.489 1.305 155.985 36.235 0.001 0.564 Group 266.944 1 266.944 7.201 0.012 0.205 Discussion The findings demonstrated that the emotion recognition intervention was effective in improving the emotional self-regulation skills of students diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). This effect can be explained by the fact that one of the objectives of the emotion recognition intervention program is to concentrate on the underlying processes and unpleasant thoughts and feelings by correctly identifying and expressing internal emotional experiences, thereby helping individuals to tolerate their emotions. This intervention assists in helping individuals identify and label their emotions, associate them with specific needs and actions, and ultimately, regulate their emotional responses in order to activate healthy emotions through relabeling. The positive impact of the emotion recognition intervention on the empathy skills of students with ODD can be attributed to the fact that a person's awareness and expression of emotions directly affect their ability to respond appropriately to both their own and others' negative emotions. The more proficient an individual is at recognizing, accepting, and employing appropriate strategies to manage their emotions, the better equipped they are to provide a suitable response in situations involving negative emotions and help themselves and others regulate their emotional state. Conclusion The findings of this research demonstrate that the emotion recognition intervention is a successful, cost-effective, and practical method for improving the emotional self-regulation and empathy skills of children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). As such, it is recommended that relevant organizations and centers consider implementing this program as a means to promote emotional empowerment and enhance the empathy levels of children with ODD. Acknowledgments The researchers would like to express their profound gratitude to all the participants who willingly took part in this study and all those who assisted in its execution. The research team is genuinely appreciative of their contribution and cooperation.

Abstract Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the impact of a child self-regulation program on the self-perception and friendship quality of children diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The study employed a semi-experimental research design with a pre-test-post-test methodology and a control group. The statistical population for this research comprised all 9-12-year-old girls diagnosed with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in Tehran during the 2021-2022 period. The sample size consisted of 30 participants, with 15 assigned to the experimental group and 15 to the control group, selected from the statistical population using an available sampling method. While the control group remained on the waiting list, the experimental group received a child self-regulation program. The research instruments utilized were Harter's self-perception scale (2012) and Zohrevand and Hejazi's (2001) friendship quality assessment. The results indicated that the self-regulation intervention had a significant impact on enhancing self-perception and friendship quality during the post-test and follow-up stages. These findings provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of self-regulation programs, which can be utilized by counselors and psychologists to enhance self-perception and friendship quality among children with ADHD. Extended abstract Introduction Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that often starts in childhood and continues into adulthood (Singh, Kumar, Kaur, Mandal & Kumar, 2022). Literature shows that children with ADHD overestimate their own competence (Varma & Wiener, 2020); for example, in this population, their self-perceptions are often inconsistent with objective measures of performance or parent and teacher ratings of competence. This may lead children with ADHD to have unrealistic self-perceptions (Hoza, Mrug, Gerdes, Hinshaw, Bukowski, Gold & et al., 2005). However, studies show that children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have less stable friendships compared to neurotypical children (Powell, Riglin, Ng-Knight, Frederickson, Woolf, McManus & et al., 2021) and tend to be more friendly with people who have a learning or behavioral problem (Marton, Wiener, Rogers & Moore, 2015). Current strategies for treating children with ADHD mainly focus on pharmacological treatments, but these treatments often do not meet children's and families' needs (Villodas, McBurnett, Kaiser, Rooney & Pfiffner, 2014), and have shown a limited effect (Swanson, Baler & Volkow, 2011). As such, the importance of psychological interventions, especially self-regulation interventions, is becoming increasingly important to reduce and even resolve these problems in individuals with ADHD. The use of self-regulation interventions, such as cognitive behavior therapy, is one of the most common and widely used interventions, and it can be very effective (Guderjahn, Gold, Stadler & Gawrilow, 2013). Research Questions Does the child's self-regulation program effectively change the self-perception of children with ADHD? Does the child's self-regulation program effectively improve the quality of friendship in children with ADHD?" or "What is the impact of a self-regulation program on the quality of friendship for children with ADHD? Literature Review In line with the effectiveness of self-regulation training, the results of Moradi, Hashemi, Farzad, Beyrami & Ketamati (2009) showed that teaching self-regulation strategies, motivational behaviors and verbal self-education have significant effects on reducing hyperactivity symptoms of students with ADHD. They are active. In another study, Ebrahimi & Taher (2019) found that self-regulation training is effective in increasing the social skills of students with mild mental retardation by improving the ability to plan, self-review and organize. The results of Abolghasemi, Barzegar & Rostamoghli (2015) also indicate the effectiveness of self-regulation training on improving students' self-efficacy and quality of life. Methodology The design of the research was semi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design and follow-up with a control group. The sample consisted of female students aged 9 to 12 years with ADHD who were studying in schools in Tehran in 2022. The students were selected by education consultants who received a diagnosis of ADHD. For a more accurate diagnosis, a semi-structured clinical interview was conducted to these children. Finally, a sample of 30 students was selected based on the entry criteria and they were replaced in two experimental and control groups (15 experimental people, 15 control people). Both groups completed the Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 2012) and the Friendship Quality Questionnaire (Hejazi & Zohrevand, 2001) as a pre-test. The experimental group then participated in 12 sessions of 45 minutes based on the child's self-regulation intervention, while the control group did not receive any intervention. Immediately after the end of the training sessions, the self-perception scale and the quality of friendship were assessed as a post-test for both groups. They were then followed up after 2 months. results The results of this analysis show that there was a significant interaction between stages (pre-test, post-test, follow-up) and groups (experimental and control) for several of the research variables, including self-perception and quality of friendship. The Bonferroni test indicated that the experimental and control groups were significantly different from each other in terms of the research variables at all stages of the study, and that the improvement in self-perception and the quality of friendship observed in the experimental group was stable over time and still present at the follow-up phase. Overall, these results suggest that the child's self-regulation education was effective in improving the self-perception and quality of friendship of the children in the experimental group, and that this effect was sustained over time. Table 1: Results of analysis of variance with repeated measurements Variable Source of Changes Total Squares df Mean of Squares f Sig. Effect Size Scholastic Competence Time 208.067 2 104.033 100.832 0.001 0.78 Time×group 102.822 2 51.411 49.829 0.001 0.64 Social Competence Time 108.022 1.280 84.385 23.720 0.001 0.46 Time×group 93.800 1.280 73.275 20.597 0.001 0.42 Athletic Competence Time 25.956 1.640 15.831 10.297 0.001 0.27 Time×group 35.467 1.640 21.631 14.071 0.001 0.33 Physical Appearance Time 89.689 2 44.844 45.531 0.001 0.61 Time×group 118.489 2 59.244 60.151 0.001 0.68 Behavioral Conduct Time 171.089 2 85.544 70.819 0.001 0.71 Time×group 198.600 2 99.300 82.206 0.001 0.75 Self-Worth Time 73.489 1.195 61.486 21.839 0.001 0.44 Time×group 38.289 1.195 32.035 11.378 0.001 0.29 quality of friendship Time 320.267 1.173 273.041 74.979 0.001 0.72 Time×group 219.467 1.173 187.104 51.380 0.001 0.65 Keywords: Self-Regulation, Self-Perception, Friendship Quality, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of positive parenting programs and distress tolerance skills on the psychological well-being of mothers with children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The research design was a quasi-experimental and pretest-posttest one with a control group. The statistical population of this study included all mothers of children aged 7 to 11 years with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in Tehran in 2021-2022. The sample size included 45 students who were selected from the statistical population by the available sampling method (n=15). For the first experimental group, a positive parenting training program was implemented and for the second experimental group, a distress tolerance training program was implemented while the control group did not receive any training. The research instrument included the Psychological Well-Being Scale (Reef, 1989). The results showed that both interventions had an effect on improving the psychological well-being of mothers with children with Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder. (P<0.001). Evidence shows that positive parenting programs and distress tolerance skills are effective in increasing mothers' psychological well-being and the difference between positive parenting groups and distress tolerance skills is not significant (P <0.05). Overall, it can be concluded that a positive parenting program and distress tolerance skills can lead to the improvement of the psychological well-being of mothers with children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.