Research Paper
akbar jadidi mohammadabadi; Fariba Dortaj; Azita Salajegheh
Abstract
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between negative emotions, metacognitive beliefs and self-care of parents with children with mental disabilities in Kerman in the academic year 2023-2024. This research was descriptive and correlational. The study population included ...
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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between negative emotions, metacognitive beliefs and self-care of parents with children with mental disabilities in Kerman in the academic year 2023-2024. This research was descriptive and correlational. The study population included all parents with mentally retarded children in Kerman that among them, a sample of 160 people (parents) were selected by Available. The negative emotions questionnaire (taken from Panas positive and negative emotion questionnaire), Wells Metacognitive Beliefs Questionnaire (1997) and World Health Organization Self-Care Questionnaire (2016) were used to collect data. Collected data were analyzed at two levels of descriptive (frequency, mean, standard deviation, etc.) and inferential (Pearson correlation, simultaneous regression and stepwise) using SPSS software. Findings showed that negative emotions have a positive and significant relationship with metacognitive beliefs and a negative and significant relationship with self-care. Also, the results of Pearson correlation showed that there is a significant negative relationship between metacognitive beliefs and self-care. The results of stepwise regression also showed that negative emotions and metacognitive beliefs are negatively and significantly able to predict self-care in parents with mentally retarded children. Therefore, it is possible to increase self-care in parents with mentally retarded children by reducing negative emotions and also by using appropriate metacognitive therapies.
Keywords: Negative Emotions, Metacognitive Beliefs, Self-Care, Parents with Mentally Retarded Children.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
specific challenges for the family, particularly for the parents. These challenges can significantly impair the family's mental health. The birth and upbringing of a child with special needs is often perceived as a distressing and demanding event, frequently leading to stress, guilt, sadness, and despair. Research indicates that parents of children with intellectual disabilities experience lower overall health and higher levels of anxiety, guilt, and shame compared to parents of typically developing children.
Intellectual disability is a specific neurodevelopmental condition arising from various factors before or after birth. The presence of a child with such disabilities within the family unit can act as a chronic stressor, adversely affecting interpersonal relationships and the overall dynamics among family members.
Research Questions
This study aims to investigate the relationships among metacognitive beliefs, negative emotions, and self-care in parents of children with intellectual disabilities. Specifically, the researchers seek to answer the following questions:
Is there a significant relationship between self-care and negative emotions in parents of children with intellectual disabilities?
Is there a significant relationship between self-care and metacognitive beliefs in parents of children with intellectual disabilities?
To what extent can self-care be predicted based on negative emotions and metacognitive beliefs?
Literature Review
Bagherian et al. (2019) conducted a study on 125 chronic hemodialysis patients in Isfahan. Their results indicated a significant negative relationship between depression and self-care, suggesting that higher levels of negative emotions are associated with lower self-care. Similarly, Rezaeian et al. (2017) investigated the relationship between stress, anxiety, and depression with prenatal self-care behaviors in women at risk of preterm labor. Their findings showed that stress and depression have a significant negative correlation with prenatal self-care behaviors. Furthermore, Zare et al. (2020) examined the relationship between perceived social support, anxiety, and self-care among 140 hemodialysis patients in Turkey. The results revealed that patients with higher perceived social support and lower anxiety levels exhibited greater self-care, indicating a significant negative relationship between negative emotions (anxiety) and self-care. However, contrasting findings have also been reported; for instance, studies by Ho et al. (2015) and Najafi Ghezeljeh et al. (2019) found no significant relationship between negative emotions and self-care.
Methodology
This research was applied in its objective and employed a descriptive-correlational design for data collection. The statistical population consisted of all parents of children with intellectual disabilities in Kerman during the 2023-2024 academic year. A sample of 160 parents (either the father or the mother) was selected using a non-probability convenience sampling method. This sampling technique was chosen due to the specific characteristics of the target population, the logistical challenges of accessing a comprehensive list of all eligible parents, and ethical considerations regarding privacy and minimizing the psychological burden on participants. To facilitate data collection, coordination was established with various rehabilitation centers and exceptional schools in Kerman. Parents who met the inclusion criteria and expressed willingness to participate were subsequently invited to take part in the study.
Research Instruments:
Metacognitive Beliefs Questionnaire (MCQ-30): Metacognitive beliefs were assessed using the scale developed by Wells (1997). This self-report instrument consists of 20 items designed to measure individuals' beliefs about their own cognitive processes and thoughts.
Negative Affect Scale: Negative emotions were measured using the negative affect subscale derived from the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), developed by Watson et al. (1988). This subscale comprises 15 items specifically focused on assessing various negative emotional states.
World Health Organization Self-Care Questionnaire: To evaluate self-care, the questionnaire designed by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2016) was employed. This 30-item instrument encompasses three primary dimensions: physical, psychological, and social self-care.
Results
The results of the Pearson correlation analysis indicated a significant negative relationship between negative emotions and self-care (p* < 0.01). This finding suggests that higher levels of negative emotional states are associated with a decrease in self-care behaviors among parents of children with intellectual disabilities.
Furthermore, the correlation matrix revealed that self-care has a significant negative relationship with several key components of metacognitive beliefs. Specifically, self-care was found to be negatively correlated with the uncontrollability and danger of thoughts, low cognitive confidence, and low cognitive self-awareness (*p* < 0.05 or p < 0.01 depending on your data). These results indicate that as these negative metacognitive beliefs increase, the level of self-care among parents tends to decline.
Table 1. Predicting Self-Care through Negative Emotions and Metacognitive Beliefs
p≤
t
b
p≤
f
R2
R
Predictor Variable
Step
.01
-7.53
-.51
.001
56.77
.26
.51
Negative Emotions
First Step
.01
-7.7
-.51
.001
33.82
.3
.55
Negative Emotions
Second Step
.01
-2.87
-.19
Metacognitive Beliefs
As shown in Table 1 (or the table above), the results of the stepwise regression analysis indicated that both negative emotions ($\beta = -0.51$, $t = -7.70$, $p \leq 0.01$) and metacognitive beliefs ($\beta = -0.19$, $t = -2.87$, $p \leq 0.01$) were significant negative predictors of self-care among parents of children with intellectual disabilities. Together, these two variables accounted for 30% of the total variance in self-care scores ($R^2 = 0.30$, $F(2, 157) = 33.82$, $p \leq 0.001$).
Discussion
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the relationships among metacognitive beliefs, negative emotions, and self-care in parents of children with intellectual disabilities. The results of the Pearson correlation analysis revealed significant negative relationships between negative emotions and overall self-care, as well as its specific dimensions, including physical, psychological, and social self-care. These findings suggest that as negative emotional states—such as anxiety, depression, and stress—increase, parents' engagement in essential self-care activities across all domains tends to decrease.
Conclusion
The findings of this study should be interpreted with caution due to the lack of control over some potential confounding variables such as socioeconomic status and social support. These variables may have influenced the relationship between negative emotions, metacognitive beliefs, and self-care. Therefore, a definitive conclusion about causality or the precise strength of the relationships requires future studies with a longitudinal or experimental design that systematically measure and control these variables. However, the present findings can be useful as a basis for the initial understanding of these relationships in the studied population and for designing more precise future research.
This negative correlation highlights the debilitating impact of chronic emotional distress on the daily functioning and health-maintenance behaviors of parents who care for children with special needs. Furthermore, the significant association between negative emotions and social self-care indicates that emotional burdens may lead to social withdrawal or a reduction in seeking social support, which are critical components of maintaining one's well-being in challenging caregiving environments.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their deepest gratitude to all the parents of children with intellectual disabilities in Kerman for their invaluable participation and cooperation. We also extend our sincere thanks to the General Department of Welfare and the Welfare Organization of Kerman for their essential support and assistance in conducting this research.
Research Paper
Maryam sadat Mousavi; Morteza Taheri
Abstract
AbstractThe purpose of this study is to investigate the views of teachers and parents of students with learning disabilities about the benefits and challenges of online education and their educational strategies during the outbreak of the Covid-19 virus. To achieve this goal, an exploratory case study ...
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AbstractThe purpose of this study is to investigate the views of teachers and parents of students with learning disabilities about the benefits and challenges of online education and their educational strategies during the outbreak of the Covid-19 virus. To achieve this goal, an exploratory case study research design with qualitative and quantitative data was used.In order to collect the teachers' opinions, a semi-structured interview, the questions of which were developed based on the STAR technique and according to the teachers' lived experiences, was held with six teachers of the Radiation Learning Disabilities Center of Gonabad city, and with the method of thematic analysis and coding, Qualitative data were analyzed.By adapting the online education questionnaire (Paudel, 2021) and adjusting it according to the purpose of the researcher and the studied society, the views of 100 parents of students with learning disabilities were collected. The results of the qualitative data analysis showed that during the online education implemented for students with learning disabilities, the teachers of the three stages "starting crisis and online education", "continuation of online education" and "institutionalization of online education" identified in seven dimensions "negative emotions", "interaction in class", "executive infrastructure", "teaching", "educational limitation", "Parental compatibility" and "students with learning disabilities". Finally, despite the increase in the media literacy of teachers and parents and the greater awareness of parents about special education and the expansion of the use of communication tools in the teaching-learning process, the attitude of teachers regarding the results of online education was negative. Quantitative data analysis showed that parents were not satisfied with online education and they believe that virtual classes in the dimensions of "student learning", "readiness for online education", "negative habits" and "suitability and modernity" "It is damaged.Keywords: Learning Disabilities, Covid-19, Online Education, Education of Students with Special Needs. Extended AbstractIntroductionDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, online and distance learning emerged as a pivotal strategy to ensure educational continuity (Aliyah et al., 2020). While this digital transition offered unprecedented flexibility in terms of temporal and spatial access to curriculum (Meins et al., 2009), it simultaneously introduced formidable challenges, particularly due to the systemic lack of preparedness for such a sudden pedagogical shift (Zahra & Kirillova, 2020). These difficulties were notably pronounced for students with learning disabilities (LD), as well as their educators and parents. Unlike their neurotypical peers, students with LD rely heavily on synchronous face-to-face instruction, nuanced interpersonal communication, behavioral modeling, and the integration of multisensory physical supports—elements that are often diluted in virtual environments. Consequently, the present study sought to explore the perspectives of both teachers and parents regarding the opportunities and systemic barriers of online education for students with learning disabilities, aiming to address the following research questions.Research QuestionsWhat are the primary pedagogical, technical, and systemic challenges and opportunities perceived by teachers and parents during the online education process for students with learning disabilities?What are the prevailing attitudes of teachers and parents regarding the academic and developmental outcomes of online learning for this specific student population?To what extent does the digital literacy and technological proficiency of teachers and parents influence their overall attitudes and perceived efficacy toward online education?What instructional and interactive strategies did teachers employ to facilitate conceptual understanding and maintain engagement among students with learning disabilities in a virtual environment?Literature ReviewDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, the implementation of online learning strategies offered certain pedagogical advantages for students with special needs, including unrestricted access to asynchronous course materials and the capacity for repetitive engagement with educational content (Boone et al., 2020; Shock & Lambert, 2020). Despite these benefits, the transition to virtual platforms precipitated significant multifaceted challenges. Crucial among these were the heightened reliance on intensive parental scaffolding (Bakanin et al., 2023), the erosion of essential prosocial connections (Zaki, 2020), and the manifestation of psychological distress and anxiety in children (Shaw & Shaw, 2023). Furthermore, prolonged sedentary behavior and increased screen time led to notable musculoskeletal and motor impairments among students (Pottery et al., 2020).Empirical evidence further underscores the perceived inefficacy of these digital transitions; for instance, Fawzi and Khasuma (2020) reported that 73.9% of educators deemed online education largely ineffective for students with special needs. They categorized the primary barriers into four distinct domains: (1) infrastructural accessibility, (2) network and connectivity stability, (3) pedagogical execution (planning and assessment), and (4) parent-teacher collaboration. For parents, the burden of online education translated into increased temporal demands, a lack of technological literacy, and financial strain due to escalating internet costs (Pottery et al., 2020). Additionally, parents often struggled with a limited understanding of specialized educational concepts and time constraints, both of which adversely affected their psychological well-being and overall mental health (Shaw & Shaw, 2023).MethodologyThe present study employed a mixed-methods research design to elicit comprehensive and multidimensional insights into the experiences of educators and parents of students with learning disabilities (LD) regarding online education.Phase I: Qualitative Component:The qualitative phase focused on teachers at the Tabesh Learning Disabilities Center in Gonabad during the 2021-2022 academic year. Data were gathered through Behavioral Event Interviewing (BEI), with protocols structured according to the STAR technique (Situation, Task, Action, Result). The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using thematic content analysis, involving two stages of systematic coding to identify emergent pedagogical and structural themes.Phase II: Quantitative Component:The quantitative phase targeted parents of students referred to the same center during the first half of the 2021-2022 academic year. Using a convenience sampling approach, 100 parents were recruited for the study. Their perspectives were assessed via a modified version of the Poodle (2021) Questionnaire, specifically adapted for special education contexts.To ensure the psychometric integrity of the Parental Experiences Questionnaire, both face validity and construct validity were rigorously evaluated. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted, identifying four distinct underlying dimensions:Student-Related Factors,Readiness for Online Education,Negative Behavioral Habits, andCurricular Relevance and Technological Currency.The instrument demonstrated high internal consistency, with an overall Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.85, confirming its reliability for measuring parental perceptions in this domain.ResultsQualitative Results:The qualitative phase of the study, conducted through Behavioral Event Interviewing (BEI) and analyzed via systematic thematic coding, yielded a comprehensive map of educators' experiences. By employing the STAR technique (Situation, Task, Action, Result), the researchers captured the dynamic evolution of online pedagogical strategies for students with learning disabilities (LD). Following two rigorous rounds of coding, the emerging themes were synthesized into the following structural framework, illustrating the trajectory of educational adaptation during the 2021-2022 academic year.Table 1. Teachers of students with learning disabilities' experiences of online educationInstitutionalization of Online EducationContinuation Online EducationOnset of the Crisisand Online EducationPattern Codes time courseTeachers' Negative Attitudes to Virtual Learning Outcomes Efforts to ImproveConfusionNegative EmotionsThe use of communication tools in the teaching-learning process The effects of communication in increasing motivationLack of warm and intimate communication in virtual education Lack of face-to-face communication and its impact on the education and treatment processThe importance of communicating with students with learning disabilities in the education and treatment processInteraction in the classroom Benefits of Shad NetworkCombination of Virtual and Face-to-Face EducationCommunication Channels to Transfer Educational Content to StudentsUsing MediaEnsuring Students' Access to Communication Tools and CyberspaceWeak InternetShad Network ProblemsWaste of Time to Establish Online Education FacilitiesImplementation Infrastructurerepeatability of educationIncreasing teachers' capabilitiesTeachers' interpersonal developmentEducation development Teacher supervisionFace-to-face assessmentPrivatizing education and treatmentFinding appropriate online education contentDifferentiated educationContent productionForming educational groupsUsing available educational facilitiesAdjusting class timeIdentifying student educational and process problems Teaching process Increase in students with learning disorders Exacerbation of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in StudentsInadequacy of Focused Educational Programs in the Field of Learning DisabilitiesLimitations on implementinglearning disability activities in cyberspacePerforming motor tasksInability to take specialized tests from studentsInability to correctly diagnose students' problemsLimitations on learningEducational limitationsIncreasing parental awareness Using parental cooperation in the process of education and treatment of students with learning disabilitiesNeed for parental cooperationParental reluctance to share photos or audio of their childParental lack of cooperation in educational activitiesUsing parental cooperation in the process of education and treatment of students with learning disabilitiesJustification for parents to cooperateLack of familiarity of parents with specific training for learning disabilitiesLow media literacy of students and parentsEstablishing telephone communication with students and familiesDifficulty in implementing online training for parentsParental Adaptation The impact of participation in the teaching-learning process Inappropriate feedback from students and parentsStudents' lack of cooperation in educational activitiesEnergy induction to the teacher Students' fatigue from schoolwork and inattention to homework Learning disordersStudents' unwillingness to participate in virtual classes Learning disabilities Students with learning disabilities Quantitative Results:The descriptive analysis of parental evaluations across the four primary dimensions of online education revealed a predominantly cautious to negative trend. As illustrated by the mean scores, the dimensions of "Curricular Relevance and Technological Currency" (M = 1.84), "Student Learning Outcomes" (M = 2.04), and "Negative Behavioral Habits" (M = 2.25) received the lowest ratings from parents. The only component that garnered a relatively more positive—though still moderate—evaluation was "Readiness for Online Education" (M = 2.64).Collectively, the data indicate that parental satisfaction across these four dimensions, as well as their overall attitude toward the efficacy of online interventions for students with learning disabilities (LD), remains significantly low (Global M = 2.19). To further investigate the potential influence of socio-demographic variables, parents' perspectives were analyzed based on gender, employment status, and educational attainment. The results of the inferential analysis demonstrated that these demographic factors did not exert a statistically significant impact on how parents evaluated the outcomes of online education. This suggests that the challenges and perceived ineffectiveness of virtual learning for students with LD are experienced universally by parents, regardless of their background or socioeconomic status.DiscussionThe thematic analysis of the qualitative data revealed that teachers of students with learning disabilities (LD) navigated a complex evolutionary trajectory during the COVID-19 pandemic. This journey was characterized by three distinct temporal phases: (1) The Crisis Onset and Initial Transition, (2) The Sustained Period of Online Instruction, and (3) The Institutionalization of Virtual Pedagogical Practices.Across these three phases, the teachers' experiences were manifested across seven core dimensions:Emotional Landscape: Predominantly characterized by "negative emotions" and professional anxiety.Pedagogical Dynamics: Focused on "classroom interaction" and "instructional delivery" (teaching).Structural Constraints: Involving "executive infrastructure" and "educational limitations" inherent to digital platforms.Ecological Adaptation: Pertaining to "parental adaptation" and the unique needs of "students with learning disabilities."Synthesizing the interview data in response to the research questions, the following key thematic outcomes emerged:Challenges and Limitations: Barriers to Pedagogical IntegrityTeachers identified a series of multifaceted barriers that impeded the educational and therapeutic process for students with learning disabilities (LD). These challenges were categorized into four primary domains:- Clinical and Diagnostic Constraints: The transition to online platforms led to a significant erosion of face-to-face synergy, which compromised the diagnostic accuracy of identifying students’ process-related issues. Furthermore, teachers observed an exacerbation of comorbid conditions, specifically obsessive-compulsive tendencies, and a notable absence of the "warm and empathetic" rapport essential for LD interventions.- Methodological and Ethical Hurdles: Educators emphasized the limitations of virtualizing specialized LD activities, noting that many tactile and kinesthetic interventions lost their efficacy. Concerns regarding academic integrity (cheating) and the inadequacy of standardized centralized programs (e.g., the Shad network) were frequently cited.- Home-School Ecology: A significant barrier was the parental literacy gap regarding specialized LD training. This was compounded by low media literacy among families, a lack of collaborative engagement, and "privacy-related hesitance," where parents were reluctant to share multimedia evidence (audio/video) of their child’s progress.- Technological and Engagement Fatigue: Persistent infrastructural issues, such as unstable internet connectivity, coupled with student burnout—manifested as assignment fatigue and diminished attention toward specialized remedial tasks—remained pervasive.Teachers’ Global Perception of Online Intervention EfficacyDespite the identifiable professional and systemic advancements during the "Institutionalization" phase, a profound consensus emerged regarding the overall pedagogical efficacy of virtual learning for students with learning disabilities (LD). The qualitative synthesis indicates that teachers at the Tabesh Learning Disabilities Center maintain a predominantly negative attitude toward the long-term results of online implementation during the COVID-19 pandemic.While acknowledging the benefits of digital literacy and content diversification, educators consistently argued that virtual education fails to reach the clinical and therapeutic threshold of face-to-face instruction. The primary concerns cited were:- Instructional Inferiority: A pervasive belief that the digital medium is fundamentally "less effective" than traditional classroom settings for students requiring multisensory and tactile interventions.- The Diagnostic Gap: The inability to replicate the nuanced, real-time feedback loop inherent in physical presence, which is critical for correcting processing deficits in LD students.- Affective Deficit: The loss of the "intimate therapeutic rapport" which teachers viewed as the cornerstone of psychological and educational remedial work.In conclusion, the teachers’ perspective aligns with the parental quantitative data (M = 2.19), suggesting a cross-stakeholder skepticism toward the permanence of online education as a primary mode of delivery for this specific student population.The Trajectory of Digital Proficiency and its Impact on Educator AttitudesThe analysis of teachers’ experiences reveals a dynamic skill-acquisition curve that significantly influenced their adaptation to virtual environments. This evolution can be categorized into two distinct stages:- The Initial Skill Gap (Crisis Onset): At the inception of the transition, educators faced substantial technical constraints. Their limited proficiency in digital tools and the lack of experience in mediating the "teaching-learning process" through virtual communication channels contributed to the prevalence of "Negative Emotions" and professional anxiety.- Iterative Professional Development (Continuation to Institutionalization): As the pandemic progressed, teachers transitioned from passive users to proactive digital practitioners. This growth was facilitated by a tripartite strategy:Collaborative Peer Learning: Leveraging collective experiences and knowledge-sharing among colleagues at the center.Formal Professional Training: Active participation in specialized in-service courses focused on the Shad network ecosystem and multimedia content production.Self-Directed Learning: Utilizing autonomous web-based research to bridge pedagogical gaps.The findings of this study underscore a significant divergence between technical adaptation and perceived instructional efficacy. While the "Institutionalization" of online education facilitated a systematic enhancement of digital pedagogical literacy—allowing educators to move beyond initial crisis-management and basic troubleshooting—it did not fundamentally alter their core professional skepticism.This leads to a critical interpretive conclusion: Professional competence in digital tool usage did not translate into a positive attitude toward online outcomes for students with LD. Teachers remained acutely cognizant of the inherent limitations of the digital medium, specifically regarding the loss of multisensory synergy and therapeutic rapport.This qualitative insight perfectly mirrors the quantitative data from parents, who, despite having the highest mean in "Online Education Readiness" (M = 2.64), still reported a low overall satisfaction (Global M = 2.19). Together, these findings suggest that for the specific population of students with learning disabilities, the "Digital Silver Lining" of increased skills and infrastructure cannot substitute for the clinical necessity of face-to-face intervention.The findings delineate a significant strategic shift in the delivery of remedial interventions for students with learning disabilities (LD). Due to the inherent clinical nature of LD therapies—which fundamentally require physical presence and tactile-kinesthetic interaction—the transition to virtual spaces necessitated a reconfiguration of the teacher-student dyad.- Parental Scaffolding as an Educational Proxy: A primary strategy identified was the transformation of parents into "Educational Assistants" or physical proxies. Since direct therapeutic intervention was structurally impossible in cyberspace, teachers adopted a mediated instructional model, where they provided the pedagogical framework and specialized guidance, while parents executed the physical and cognitive scaffolding required for the student’s specific learning disorder.- The Evolution of Digital Ecosystems: The communication landscape underwent a transition from fragmented platforms to centralized institutionalization: Phase 1 (Diversified Channels): During the initial "Crisis Onset," teachers utilized a heterogeneous mix of digital channels, including the Shad network, domestic messengers (e.g., Eitaa, Soroush), and global platforms (e.g., Telegram, WhatsApp). This multi-channel approach was dictated by "Parental Adaptation" levels and the varying digital access of families. Phase 2 (Systemic Integration): As the "Executive Infrastructure" of the Shad network matured and its usability features (UI/UX) for LD-specific content production improved, the majority of instructional delivery was systematically migrated to this centralized platform.This strategic evolution highlights that while the "Institutionalization" of the Shad network provided a unified structural base, the actual pedagogical efficacy remained heavily dependent on the quality of parental cooperation and their ability to act as the teacher's physical extension in the home environment.Parental Experiences:The second part of this study examines the experiences of parents of students with learning disabilities regarding online education. Based on the analysis of quantitative data and in response to the research questions, the findings are as follows:Challenges and limitations of online education from the perspective of parents- Students' difficulties in attending virtual classes and working with digital tools.- Challenges regarding coordination and time management for online sessions.- Students' lack of independence and their high dependency on parental support.- The inadequacy of online education in facilitating deep, lifelong, and continuous learning.- The high costs associated with participating in online classes.- The lack of diversity and the uniformity of instructional content.- The time-consuming nature of virtual classes compared to face-to-face instruction.- The reduction in social interactions with teachers and peers, leading to social isolation.- The lack of direct and continuous teacher supervision over educational activities.- Difficulties in maintaining focus on educational content.- Students' lack of self-reliance in completing educational tasks.- Limited and delayed feedback from teachers.- Lack of access to high-speed internet and technical issues with the Shad network.- The increase in cheating habits among students.- The inefficiency of online education for all subjects and its failure to meet the diverse needs of all students.- The overall inability of online education to provide high-quality instruction.Opportunities and benefits of online education from the perspective of parents- Familiarizing students with various digital communication tools.- Encouraging students to participate more actively in class discussions.- Providing the possibility of continuous learning from home during quarantine conditions.- Increasing parents' media literacy and digital proficiency.Parents' Attitudes Towards the Overall Results of Online EducationMost parents (78.1%) do not have a positive view of the results of implementing online education during the COVID-19 pandemic. They maintain a negative attitude and do not consider virtual education to be as effective as face-to-face instruction for students with learning disabilities.The impact of parents' skills in using digital tools on their attitudes towards online educationWhile 36.2% of parents reported having little or very little skill in using digital tools, the majority (63.8%) stated they possess a high or very high level of digital proficiency. However, despite this higher level of media literacy, parents' overall satisfaction with the results of online education remained negative. This indicates that parents' technical skills in using digital tools have little impact on their overall attitudes toward the efficacy of online education.ConclusionThe truth is that knowledge transfer through e-learning in developing countries often fails, resulting in students being left behind at a critical juncture in their educational cycle (Almantari, Mavlina, & Bruce, 2020). With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and the absence of a clear endpoint, the urgent need to maintain educational continuity led schools in our country, like most institutions worldwide, to transition toward online education.Among these students are children with learning disabilities (LD); students who, despite possessing similar intelligence to their peers, exhibit poor academic performance due to genetic and environmental factors and thus require specialized educational and procedural support.Although online education and virtual classrooms enabled learning from home during quarantine and ensured the necessary social distancing for both teachers and students with LD, the overall attitude of educators and parents toward the outcomes of online education remained negative. They did not consider it as effective or efficient as face-to-face instruction and maintained that online education is fundamentally unable to provide high-quality education tailored to the specific needs of students with learning disabilities.
Research Paper
Mojghan Ghanat; Zeynab Rashidi; Fatemeh Jafarkhani
Abstract
Abstract
Mobile learning, as an emerging paradigm in education, holds significant potential to support learners with special needs, provided that principled instructional design is integrated into the learning and teaching process. This study conducted a systematic literature review, following the PRISMA ...
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Abstract
Mobile learning, as an emerging paradigm in education, holds significant potential to support learners with special needs, provided that principled instructional design is integrated into the learning and teaching process. This study conducted a systematic literature review, following the PRISMA guidelines, to identify educational strategies based on mobile learning and their associated design considerations for students with special needs. A search was performed across reputable academic databases, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and ProQuest, using specialized keyword combinations, covering publications from 2010 to 2025. From an initial pool of 144 articles, 18 relevant studies were selected for analysis after screening. The findings indicate that mobile technology platforms and tools, particularly those leveraging artificial intelligence, enhance the educational process for these students through strategies focused on accessibility and ease of use, interaction and communication, personalization and adaptation to individual needs, and motivation and encouragement. While these technologies demonstrate substantial potential for fostering inclusive educational environments, the lack of longitudinal and comparative studies to accurately assess their effectiveness remains a significant challenge. Additionally, the absence of explicit instructional design considerations was noted in many studies.
Keywords: Mobile Learning, Special Education, Educational Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Personalized Learning.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Mobile learning, as defined by UNESCO (2023), refers to educational practices facilitated through portable digital devices, such as smartphones and tablets, which enable personalized, context-sensitive, and flexible learning experiences. This pedagogical approach harnesses advanced digital technologies to deliver tailored educational content, offering significant potential for students with special needs who require customized support due to cognitive, neurodevelopmental, sensory, or motor impairments (World Health Organization, 2021). These impairments encompass a wide range of conditions, including visual and hearing impairments, intellectual disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, and motor challenges, all of which demand specialized educational strategies to address diverse learning needs (Amir & Ahmad, 2022).
In traditional educational systems, students with special needs encounter significant barriers, such as inaccessible physical environments, limited access to appropriate learning materials, and conventional teaching methods that often fail to accommodate their unique requirements (Morgan, 2015). For instance, visually impaired students struggle to engage with traditional visual resources, while those with hearing impairments face substantial challenges with auditory-based instruction, ultimately resulting in persistent educational disparities (Chelkowski et al., 2019).
Mobile learning mitigates these challenges by providing adaptive, technology-driven solutions that align with individual learner needs. Features such as continuous access to digital resources, interactive interfaces, and real-time connectivity with educators and peers significantly enhance the educational experience for these students (**Drigas & Kokkalia, 2016**). Additionally, modern mobile technologies incorporate intelligent systems that analyze learner behavior and provide personalized feedback, creating engaging and effective learning environments (**Fernández-López et al., 2013; Lozanova, 2022**). For example, applications embedded with adaptive algorithms can dynamically adjust content delivery based on a student’s progress, making learning more accessible and motivating for those with special educational needs (**Lozanova, 2022**).
Despite concerns regarding potential distractions associated with mobile devices, such as reduced learner focus (**Alam, 2023**), empirical evidence increasingly underscores the transformative potential of mobile learning in special education. This pedagogical approach not only addresses traditional barriers but also empowers students by fostering flexible, inclusive, and dynamic learning opportunities. Consequently, the present study explores the application of mobile learning for students with special needs, with a primary focus on identifying effective educational strategies and their associated design considerations to promote equity and accessibility within diverse educational settings.
Research Questions:
This study is guided by the following research questions:
What mobile learning strategies are currently employed to enhance the educational experiences of students with special needs?
What are the key design considerations for developing effective and inclusive mobile learning interventions for these students?
Literature Review
Extensive research highlights the transformative potential of mobile learning in supporting students with special needs across diverse impairment categories. Drigas and Kokkalia (2016) found that mobile technologies significantly enhance access to educational resources, fostering greater engagement and promoting equitable learning opportunities. For instance, mobile applications featuring interactive elements allow students to engage with content at their own pace, effectively mitigating barriers inherent in traditional classroom settings.
Similarly, Cumming and Draper Rodríguez (2017) reported that mobile applications specifically designed for students with cognitive disabilities improve self-regulation and motivation by offering structured, interactive learning experiences. Furthermore, Al-Rashaida et al. (2022) demonstrated that interactive mobile programs enhance social and communication skills among students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), showing measurable improvements in peer interactions. Regarding students with hearing impairments, Brezovszky et al. (2019) emphasized the critical role of multisensory feedback in mobile applications, which integrates visual and tactile cues to facilitate active participation.
However, implementing mobile learning effectively presents significant challenges. Butler et al. (2017) identified critical limitations, such as poorly designed user interfaces and the absence of standardized frameworks, which can severely hinder the accessibility and overall impact of mobile learning tools. Furthermore, Baghaei et al. (2016) noted that most existing studies focus primarily on short-term outcomes, highlighting an urgent need for longitudinal research to assess sustained educational impacts.
Tailoring mobile learning to specific needs remains a paramount consideration. For students with hearing impairments, Pachler et al. (2010) underscored the cost-effectiveness and motivational benefits of interactive visual resources, which leverage these learners’ strong visual processing abilities. In contrast, students with visual impairments encounter substantial challenges in accessing graphical content, necessitating customized interfaces equipped with audio or tactile feedback (Retorta & Cristovão, 2017). To address these barriers, Kamaghe et al. (2020) proposed the implementation of short-term training programs and cost-reduction strategies to enhance broader accessibility for these students.
For students with behavioral-emotional disorders, such as ADHD, multisensory and visualization-based strategies have been shown to significantly improve focus and social-emotional skills (Antonietti et al., 2021). Furthermore, mobile learning environments prove exceptionally effective for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), as they align with constructivist principles that emphasize experiential and discovery-based learning (Korucu & Alkan, 2011). In the context of physical disabilities, mobile learning facilitates differentiated instruction and fosters essential communication skills, thereby promoting broader inclusivity (Karagianni & Drigas, 2023).
For students with intellectual disabilities, the implementation of user-friendly mobile tools, particularly when combined with parental support, enhances independence and peer interaction (Lancioni et al., 2017). Similarly, in addressing learning disabilities such as dyslexia, the use of tablets and interactive applications makes reading more engaging and measurably improves literacy skills (Thomas et al., 2019). Despite these advancements, challenges such as insufficient content adaptation and persistent technical limitations remain prevalent (Cumming & Draper Rodríguez, 2017).
To overcome these barriers, personalized frameworks, such as those proposed by Fernández-López et al. (2013), and gamified tools specifically designed for students with ADHD (Knight et al., 2016), demonstrate significant potential to enhance engagement and learning outcomes. Ultimately, addressing existing design and standardization gaps remains critical to maximizing the efficacy of mobile learning for students with special educational needs.
Methodology
This study employs a systematic literature review to examine mobile learning strategies and design considerations for students with special needs, adhering to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines to ensure methodological rigor and transparency (Page et al., 2021).
Search Strategy and Data Sources:
Articles were systematically sourced from prominent electronic databases, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and ProQuest. The search strategy utilized a combination of keywords such as “Mobile Learning,” “Special Education,” “Assistive Technology,” and “Educational Approaches.” The search period was limited to 2010–2025 to capture the most recent technological and pedagogical advancements in the field.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria:
The review exclusively included English-language, peer-reviewed articles with full-text access to maintain analytical consistency. While this criterion ensures high-quality data, it acknowledges a potential limitation by excluding non-English perspectives (e.g., Persian-language studies). Future research may benefit from utilizing translation tools or fostering multilingual collaborations for broader inclusivity. Specifically, inclusion criteria targeted studies focusing on mobile learning strategies and design considerations for special needs education. Conversely, studies lacking full-text access, non-English publications, or general mobile learning research without a specific focus on special education were excluded.
Study Selection and Data Extraction:
The initial search retrieved 144 articles. Following the removal of duplicates and a rigorous screening of titles and abstracts, 89 articles were selected for comprehensive full-text review. Ultimately, 18 studies that strictly met all inclusion criteria were synthesized and analyzed for methodological rigor, clarity, and thematic alignment. Data extracted from these studies included author details, publication year, research methodology, sample characteristics, specific educational strategies, and key design considerations. These findings were subsequently organized into thematic tables to facilitate a robust qualitative analysis.
Results
The synthesized findings confirm the transformative impact of mobile learning on special education, demonstrating its capacity to mitigate traditional educational barriers through accessible, interactive, and technology-driven platforms.
Tailored Strategies for Diverse Needs:
Evidence indicates that the efficacy of mobile learning is highly dependent on disability-specific adaptations. Fernández-López et al. (2013) found that mobile applications featuring simplified interfaces and adjustable difficulty levels significantly optimize learning outcomes for students with intellectual disabilities. Similarly, Brezovszky et al. (2019) reported that gamified educational tools enhance both cognitive functions and motivational outcomes for students with ADHD. For learners with visual impairments, Esmaeili and Ebrahimi (2017) highlighted the critical role of advanced text-to-speech systems, while Song et al. (2011) emphasized the importance of integrating strategic audio cues.
Emerging Technologies and Interface Design:
Innovative technologies are further expanding accessibility. Chang and Lin (2024) demonstrated that Augmented Reality (AR) effectively mitigates reading challenges for students with dyslexia, a finding complemented by Rahim et al. (2018), who noted that the use of specialized, legible fonts significantly improves literacy. Regarding interface architecture, Declerck et al. (2015) underscored the necessity of hierarchical interfaces for students with intellectual disabilities to reduce cognitive load.
Behavioral and Physical Adaptations:
For students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), Brito and Pizzato (2016) identified that predictable game structures and consistent routines within mobile environments improve learning stability. Furthermore, for learners with ADHD, Paul et al. (2019) emphasized the necessity of adaptive content delivery to maintain engagement. Finally, addressing physical constraints, Parsazadeh and Cheng (2025) highlighted the integration of eye-tracking technologies as a groundbreaking intervention for students with motor impairments.
Thematic analysis of the selected studies identified three core design pillars: optimized user interfaces, personalized content, and dynamic feedback mechanisms. These strategies were further categorized into five functional domains: mobile applications, educational games, assistive technologies, augmented reality (AR), and advanced support tools. To provide a comprehensive overview, Table 1 summarizes these educational strategies and their associated design considerations across diverse impairment categories.
Table 1. Mobile Learning Strategies and Design Considerations for Students with Special Needs
Special Needs Group
Technology
Mobile Learning Benefits
AI Role
Design Considerations
Example Application
Source
Hearing Impairment
Mobile apps with captions, visual feedback
Easy access, text/image interaction, personalization, motivation
Speech-to-text, gesture recognition
Simple UI, clear fonts, no background noise
SignAloud
Dams et al. (2015)
Visual Impairment
Assistive tech (text-to-speech, wearables)
Audio navigation, personalized reading speed, motivational feedback
Object recognition, navigation optimization
Natural voice, large text, minimal visuals
Seeing AI
Kamaghe et al. (2020)
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Interactive games with AR
Social skills, personalized difficulty, motivation
Chatbots, behavior analysis
Predictable design, minimal distractions
Molehill Mountain
Brito & Pizzato (2016)
Motor Disabilities
Assistive tech (eye-tracking, virtual keyboards)
Eye-movement control, personalized UI, interactive tasks
Adaptive UI, predictive algorithms
Large virtual keyboards, vibration feedback
Tobii Dynavox
Parsazadeh & Cheng (2025)
Intellectual Disabilities
Simple-menu apps, puzzle activities
Short, engaging tasks, adjustable difficulty, motivational rewards
Smart repetition, error guidance
Fixed menus, large icons, clear language
Endless Alphabet
Guo et al. (2019)
Dyslexia
AR + AI
Real-world reading practice, personalized tasks, engaging 3D words
Error analysis, content generation
3D word display, gentle backgrounds
Amira Learning
Amado & Amars (2023)
ADHD
Gamified educational games
Short, challenging tasks, reward systems, adjustable stimulation
Dynamic challenge adjustment, distraction detection
Vibrant colors, immediate rewards
Focus Pocus
Baghaei et al. (2016)
General Special Needs
AI-supported individualized learning
Easy access, tailored content, teacher/parent interaction
Personalized programs, progress monitoring
Simple, accessible UI, collaborative design
CENTURY Tech
Effendi (2025)
Discussion
This study investigated mobile learning strategies and design considerations for students with special educational needs, specifically examining how these strategies are implemented and identifying their essential design requirements. The findings, synthesized in Table 1, underscore that mobile learning—powered by technologies such as specialized applications, educational games, assistive tools, Augmented Reality (AR), and advanced interactive systems—has fundamentally transformed the landscape of special education.
Based on the thematic analysis, four overarching strategies emerged as critical for success:
Accessibility: Enhancing inclusivity by enabling flexible learning through mobile-optimized navigation and device-agnostic platforms.
Interaction: Fostering social and collaborative engagement, which is vital for students with communication-related impairments.
Personalization: Tailoring educational content to meet individual cognitive and physical needs, while incorporating cultural and linguistic considerations.
Motivation: Utilizing gamified rewards and engaging activities to sustain learner interest, while strictly ensuring data privacy and ethical standards (Alnahdi, 2020; Bouck et al., 2021).
Accessibility Strategies
Accessibility strategies significantly enhance student participation through device compatibility, flexible navigation, and rigorous adherence to international web accessibility standards. Alnahdi (2020) emphasized that compliance with global standards, such as robust screen reader support and optimized UI elements, is fundamental in reducing learning barriers for diverse learners. Furthermore, Hersh and Johnson (2022) noted that such inclusive strategies not only facilitate access but also boost learner autonomy and motivation by enabling independent engagement with educational content without constant external intervention.
Interaction and Collaboration Strategies
Interaction strategies, which prioritize social-emotional skills and multimodal engagement, are pivotal in supporting collaborative learning environments. Cook and Polgar (2022) found that adaptive interactions—including adjustable difficulty levels and multisensory content delivery—directly enhance both learner motivation and independence. These findings are complemented by Lancioni et al. (2016), who highlighted the transformative role of mobile tools in facilitating social interactions. By enabling seamless online communication with peers and educators, these tools foster inclusive learning experiences that transcend physical limitations, thereby promoting social integration alongside academic growth.
Personalization and AI-Driven Adaptation
Personalization strategies, increasingly leveraging AI-driven adaptive systems, align educational content with individual cognitive and physical abilities, thereby significantly enhancing learner engagement. As demonstrated by Fernández-López et al. (2013), personalized mobile applications markedly improve learning outcomes for students with intellectual disabilities by dynamically adjusting content delivery to match the user's pace and proficiency. This level of individualization ensures that mobile learning environments remain responsive to the unique challenges of special education, moving beyond "one-size-fits-all" approaches toward a more inclusive, learner-centric model.
Motivation and Psychological Empowerment
Motivation strategies, incorporating gamification and immediate feedback mechanisms, align with Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to foster competence and autonomy. Seiler and Homner (2020) reported that gamified elements—such as badges, progress bars, and leaderboards—significantly increase intrinsic motivation by providing a sense of achievement. Furthermore, Ryan and Deci (2021) emphasized that providing meaningful, real-time feedback satisfies fundamental psychological needs for competence and relatedness. By integrating these motivational frameworks, mobile learning tools not only support academic success but also empower students with special needs to become more self-regulated and independent learners.
The integration of diverse mobile technologies provides targeted solutions for various impairment categories. Mobile applications, particularly advanced text-to-speech (TTS) tools, significantly facilitate information access for visually impaired students (Esmaeili & Ebrahimi, 2017), while specialized time-management applications support students with ADHD in developing essential academic and self-regulatory skills (Paul et al., 2019). Furthermore, educational games have proven effective in enhancing cognitive focus for ADHD and social interaction skills for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD); as noted by Brezovszky et al. (2019) and Brito and Pizzato (2016), these gains are most pronounced when delivered through structured, engaging, and predictable formats.
Beyond standard applications, cutting-edge assistive technologies such as eye-tracking systems are breaking new ground by enabling independent learning for students with severe motor impairments (Parsazadeh & Cheng, 2025). Simultaneously, Augmented Reality (AR) has emerged as a transformative tool for improving reading comprehension among dyslexic students and fostering social-emotional skills in autistic learners, as evidenced by Chang and Lin (2024) and Al-Rashaida et al. (2022). Ultimately, the success of these interventions hinges on specific design considerations, such as simplified interfaces and immediate, clear feedback. Research by Declerck et al. (2015) and Rahim et al. (2018) underscores that without tailored, user-centric designs, the potential of these high-tech tools remains underutilized.
Conclusion
Despite the transformative potential of mobile learning, several challenges persist, including inconsistent design standards, negative teacher attitudes, and a lack of long-term studies (Butler et al., 2017; Baghaei et al., 2016). Socioeconomic barriers, such as unequal access to devices, further exacerbate educational disparities, particularly in developing regions (Levy et al., 2016; UNESCO, 2024). The limitations of this study include its reliance on existing data, the exclusion of non-English studies, and a limited exploration of socioeconomic factors. These gaps underscore the need for further research to ensure the equitable and effective implementation of mobile learning strategies.
Future research should prioritize longitudinal studies to assess the sustained impact of mobile learning on academic and social outcomes for students with special needs. Comparative analyses of strategies, such as mobile applications versus educational games, could further guide educators in selecting appropriate tools. Addressing digital equity, particularly in underserved regions, is critical, with initiatives like open-source platforms and device subsidies proposed to enhance access (Levy et al., 2016; UNESCO, 2024). Leveraging AI-driven platforms for data collection can facilitate long-term studies and improve personalization. Additionally, teacher training and collaboration with designers are essential to overcome resistance and enhance the efficacy of mobile learning. By addressing these gaps, mobile learning can create inclusive, effective educational environments that empower students with special needs to achieve their full potential.
Research Paper
Seyfollah Aghajani; Mohammad Zarei Nouroozi; Akbar Atadokht; Sajjad basharpoor
Abstract
Abstract
The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of social-emotional problems in adolescents in Mashhad and to determine their relationship with childhood trauma and borderline personality syndrome. This study was methodologically conducted in two formats: exploratory and descriptive-correlation ...
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Abstract
The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of social-emotional problems in adolescents in Mashhad and to determine their relationship with childhood trauma and borderline personality syndrome. This study was methodologically conducted in two formats: exploratory and descriptive-correlation regression. The target population was all adolescent girls and boys aged 14 to 18 years in Mashhad in 2023-2024, from which 630 people were selected as a sample and available. The data collection tools were the Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory (WPI); Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and Schizotypal Trait Questionnaire-B form (STB). Pearson correlation tests and multiple regression were used to analyze the data. The results of this study showed that among social-emotional problems, avoidance-withdrawal (6.4%) and hyperactivity-impulsivity (4.8%) have a significant prevalence. In addition, there was a significant direct relationship between childhood trauma (P < 0.01, r = 0.32) and borderline personality disorder (P < 0.01, r = 0.67) with social-emotional problems, and these two variables, when combined, predicted 45% (p < 0.01) of the changes in emotional problems. These results can be used to design interventions aimed at preventing social-emotional problems in adolescents.
Keywords: Prevalence, Internalizing and Externalizing Problems, Childhood Trauma, Borderline Personality, Adolescents.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The present study investigates the prevalence of socio-emotional difficulties among adolescents in Mashhad and explores the associations between these problems, childhood trauma, and borderline personality traits. Adolescence, typically spanning ages 12 to 19, is characterized by profound physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional transformations. These developmental shifts often heighten emotional reactivity and increase the propensity for unstable decision-making, rendering this period critical for the emergence of socio-emotional disturbances (Alikhani et al., 2022; Squires et al., 2020). Socio-emotional problems are conceptualized as relatively enduring, intense, and maladaptive emotional and behavioral responses that deviate from an individual’s cultural, developmental, or ethnic norms (Flores et al., 2020). These difficulties are broadly categorized into internalizing and externalizing dimensions (Lorence et al., 2019). Internalizing problems encompass intrapersonal and covert disturbances, such as anxiety, depression, social withdrawal, and fear—conditions that primarily manifest as subjective psychological distress. Conversely, externalizing problems involve observable, overt behaviors in social interactions, including bullying, aggression, and oppositional behavior (Chen et al., 2022; Kochanova et al., 2021; Danielson et al., 2021).
Empirical evidence indicates that both internalizing and externalizing difficulties frequently emerge during adolescence. For instance, Montoya-Castilla et al. (2018) reported cross-cultural prevalence rates of emotional problems ranging between 10% and 20%, while Cui et al. (2021) estimated that approximately 18% of adolescents exhibit emotional-behavioral disorders. In the Iranian context, however, recent and updated epidemiological data remain scarce. The most recent meta-analysis by Mohammadi et al. (2019) estimated a prevalence of approximately 23% for socio-emotional problems among Iranian adolescents. Given the paucity of contemporary domestic studies and the severe long-term consequences of these disturbances, a more rigorous and up-to-date investigation is warranted.
A primary theoretical framework for explaining the etiology of socio-emotional problems emphasizes the pivotal role of childhood trauma as a critical developmental antecedent (Zhang et al., 2021; Anderson et al., 2022; Valladares-Garrido et al., 2023). The concept of childhood trauma was formally introduced in 1988 by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to describe adverse and distressing early experiences, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, as well as neglect (Schäfer & Fisher, 2022; Brown et al., 2021). Such adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are a global phenomenon; for example, a World Health Organization report indicated that approximately 25% of children worldwide have been victims of various forms of maltreatment, with emotional abuse being particularly prevalent (Ekmekci Ertek et al., 2021; Fang et al., 2023).
In Iran, Mir Drikvand (2023) reported that nearly 28% of children are exposed to various forms of maltreatment. The consequences of childhood trauma are far-reaching; extensive research has linked these early adversities to depression, suicidal ideation, personality disorders, psychological distress, borderline personality traits, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and substance use disorders (Ebrahimi et al., 2023; Humphreys et al., 2020; Beck et al., 2021; Shamsabadi et al., 2022; Nakhaei et al., 2022; Lotzin et al., 2019). Beyond childhood trauma, maladaptive personality patterns—particularly borderline personality traits—have been implicated in the development of socio-emotional difficulties (Norup & Bo, 2019; Babinski et al., 2021; Benzi et al., 2023). Borderline personality is conceptualized as a persistent and severe psychological disturbance characterized by interpersonal instability, emotional dysregulation, intense anger, chronic feelings of emptiness, distorted cognitions, and recurrent self-harm or suicidal behaviors (Bozzatello et al., 2019).
Evidence suggests that 1–3% of the adolescent population may manifest borderline features (Cavelti et al., 2022). Furthermore, longitudinal studies, such as Benzi et al. (2023), have demonstrated that these features significantly predict the emergence of both internalizing and externalizing problems. Given the critical importance of adolescence for long-term mental health and the detrimental impact of undetected socio-emotional difficulties, the present study aims to estimate the prevalence of such problems among adolescents in Mashhad and to evaluate their associations with childhood trauma and borderline personality traits. It is anticipated that these findings will not only address a significant gap in the domestic literature but also provide an empirical foundation for early prevention, targeted interventions, and the enhancement of adolescent mental health at the community level.
Research Question
The primary objective of the present study is to estimate the prevalence of socio-emotional difficulties among adolescents in Mashhad and to investigate the associations between these difficulties, childhood trauma, and borderline personality traits. Specifically, this research addresses the following central question: To what extent do childhood trauma and borderline personality traits predict internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescents aged 14 to 18? By addressing this question, the study aims to elucidate the relative contributions of early adverse experiences and maladaptive personality patterns to the emergence of socio-emotional challenges in youth. Ultimately, these findings are intended to provide an empirical basis for developing evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies.
Literature Review
Adolescence represents a critical developmental window for the emergence of socio-emotional difficulties, which are broadly categorized into internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalizing (e.g., aggression) dimensions (Lorence et al., 2019). While global prevalence estimates range from 10% to 20% (Montoya Castilla et al., 2018; Chiu et al., 2021), a meta-analysis in Iran suggests a higher rate of approximately 23% (Mohammadi et al., 2019). A predominant etiological framework identifies childhood trauma—comprising adverse experiences such as abuse and neglect—as a significant developmental antecedent (Zhang et al., 2021; Anderson et al., 2022). In the Iranian context, nearly 28% of children are reported to be exposed to such maltreatment (Mirdrikvand, 2023). Furthermore, maladaptive personality patterns, particularly borderline personality traits characterized by emotional instability and interpersonal dysfunction, are strongly implicated in these disturbances (Norup & Bo, 2019; Benzi et al., 2023). Cumulative longitudinal evidence confirms that both childhood trauma and borderline traits significantly predict the trajectory of internalizing and externalizing difficulties, underscoring their pivotal role in understanding adolescent psychopathology.
Methodology
The present study employed a cross-sectional design, utilizing both exploratory and descriptive-correlational approaches. The target population comprised all male and female adolescents (aged 14 to 18 years) in Mashhad during the 2023–2024 academic year. A sample of 630 participants was selected using a convenience sampling method. Data collection was performed using three standardized psychometric instruments: the Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory (WPI) to assess socio-emotional difficulties, the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) to evaluate adverse early experiences, and the Schizotypal Trait Questionnaire-B Form (STB) to measure borderline personality traits. These instruments provided a comprehensive framework for analyzing the predictive relationships among the primary study variables.
Results
A total of 630 adolescents participated in this study, comprising 386 (61.3%) females and 244 (38.7%) males. The age distribution of the sample was as follows: 207 participants (32.9%) were 14 years old, 134 (21.3%) were 15 years old, 97 (15.4%) were 16 years old, 109 (17.3%) were 17 years old, and 83 (13.2%) were 18 years old. All participants were within the target age range of 14 to 18 years, providing a representative cross-section of the adolescent population in Mashhad during the 2023–2024 academic year.
Table 1. Prevalence of Socio-Emotional Problems Among Adolescents
Type of Problem
Total prevalence percentage
Girls
Boys
p-value
Weakness and Obsession
2.3
3.8
0.2
0.001
Impulsivity and Emotional Lability
1.2
1.1
0.9
0.23
Avoidance and Social Withdrawal
6.4
8.3
3.7
0.02
Depression
3.7
3.2
1.4
0.12
Paranoid Thoughts and Beliefs
1.4
1.6
0.6
0.18
Hyperactivity and Restlessness
4.8
3.5
1.8
0.13
Antisocial Behaviors
1.1
1.3
0.9
0.24
Aggression
1.7
2.6
0.7
0.08
The descriptive data presented in Table 2 indicate that avoidance/withdrawal ($6.4\%$) and hyperactivity/impulsivity ($4.8\%$) exhibited the highest prevalence rates among the sampled adolescents. Furthermore, significant gender differences were observed specifically in the prevalence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms and avoidance/withdrawal behaviors ($p < 0.05$).
Beyond the prevalence rates, the inferential analysis revealed significant positive correlations between the occurrence of socio-emotional difficulties and both childhood trauma ($r = 0.32, p < 0.01$) and borderline personality traits ($r = 0.67, p < 0.01$). Additionally, a multiple regression analysis demonstrated that these two variables—childhood trauma and borderline personality features—collectively account for $45\%$ of the total variance in socio-emotional problems among adolescents.
Discussion
The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of socio-emotional difficulties among adolescents in Mashhad and to examine their associations with childhood trauma and borderline personality traits. The findings revealed a significant prevalence of socio-emotional problems within this population, with both childhood trauma and borderline personality features demonstrating robust predictive capacity for these challenges. In line with the multidimensional framework of adolescent psychopathology, this study categorized socio-emotional difficulties into internalizing and externalizing dimensions. Notably, avoidance and social withdrawal were identified as the most prevalent internalizing problems, while hyperactivity and restlessness emerged as the most common externalizing manifestations.
The elevated prevalence of avoidance and social withdrawal observed in this study can be elucidated through the pervasive influence of technology and digital media. Many adolescents increasingly favor virtual interactions over face-to-face relationships, a shift that often results in a diminished inclination for physical social participation and a heightened sense of chronic isolation. Furthermore, the constant exposure to idealized self-representations in digital spaces may exacerbate feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, thereby intensifying the tendency toward social withdrawal as a maladaptive coping mechanism.
In addition to digital factors, systemic elements—including peer dynamics, the family environment, and broader cultural norms—play a pivotal role in adolescent isolation. Adolescents subjected to peer victimization or rejection may adopt social avoidance as a protective strategy to mitigate further psychological harm. Similarly, within the family system, unrealistic parental expectations and rigid cultural standards regarding the "ideal child" can impose significant psychological pressure, further driving adolescents toward social withdrawal to escape perceived failure.
Regarding the elevated prevalence of hyperactivity and restlessness, neurobiological frameworks implicate significant alterations in both brain architecture and functional connectivity. These perturbations primarily involve two critical domains: dysregulation within neurotransmitter systems—specifically the dopaminergic and noradrenergic pathways which are fundamental to attentional processes and behavioral inhibition—and structural deficits in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Given the PFC's pivotal role in executive functions, such as cognitive flexibility, self-regulation, and impulse control, its impairment often results in the clinical manifestations of hyperactivity and persistent physical restlessness. Furthermore, although hyperactivity is not intrinsically synonymous with externalizing disorders, the underlying impulsivity frequently serves as a precursor to overt externalizing behaviors, including aggression and non-compliance with social norms.
The present study further established significant positive correlations between childhood trauma, borderline personality traits, and the emergence of socio-emotional difficulties. Developmental perspectives suggest that early childhood experiences serve as the architectural foundation for emotional, social, and cognitive schemata, which subsequently dictate the quality of behavioral patterns and interpersonal dynamics during adolescence. Whether manifesting as abuse, neglect, or exposure to violence, childhood adversity profoundly disrupts psychological equilibrium.
These findings can be further elucidated through the lens of Attachment Theory, which posits that the quality of early caregiver-child bonds serves as a primary template for subsequent emotional regulation and social competence. For adolescents with a history of trauma, the development of insecure or disorganized attachment patterns often results in the formation of "internal working models" characterized by mistrust and perceived threat. These maladaptive cognitive frameworks can lead to internalizing states, such as anxiety and depression, as well as externalizing manifestations, including social avoidance and reactive aggression. In essence, the trauma-exposed adolescent may utilize these behaviors as dysfunctional attempts to navigate a social environment they perceive as inherently unstable or hostile.
Beyond attachment frameworks, neurobiological mechanisms offer critical insights into the long-term sequelae of childhood trauma. Chronic stress resulting from adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can significantly derail normative brain maturation, leading to structural and functional aberrations in the amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (PFC). These regions constitute the neural circuitry essential for affective processing, mnemonic consolidation, and executive decision-making. Disruptions in this circuitry impair the adolescent's capacity for top-down emotional regulation, empathetic resonance, and adaptive social navigation, ultimately precipitating pervasive socio-emotional difficulties.
Concurrently, the constellation of borderline personality features—characterized by interpersonal instability, profound emotional dysregulation, and chronic feelings of emptiness—exacerbates these challenges. The intense fear of abandonment and affective lability inherent in borderline pathology often drive adolescents toward maladaptive coping strategies. For instance, individuals may engage in non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) as a dysfunctional attempt to modulate overwhelming emotional pain. Such behaviors, while providing temporary relief, frequently intensify underlying feelings of guilt, shame, and worthlessness, thereby perpetuating a self-sustaining cycle of socio-emotional impairment and psychological distress.
Furthermore, the maladaptive cognitive architecture characteristic of these adolescents serves as a psychological catalyst for persistent distress. A pervasive framework of negative self-schema and distorted perceptions of others, coupled with chronic feelings of emptiness and existential meaninglessness, creates a fertile ground for internalizing pathologies. These cognitive distortions not only foster social withdrawal and profound isolation but also exacerbate depressive symptoms, as the adolescent perceives the social world as either threatening or fundamentally devoid of purpose.
In light of these findings and the significant prevalence of socio-emotional difficulties—particularly social withdrawal, depression, and restlessness—it is imperative for educational and mental health authorities to implement targeted interventions. Prevention-oriented workshops and psychoeducational seminars should be prioritized to enhance awareness among both adolescents and parents, providing them with evidence-based strategies to mitigate the escalation of these issues. Furthermore, for adolescents with a documented history of childhood trauma or emerging borderline personality traits, specialized individual and family-based counseling is essential to intercept potentially debilitating long-term outcomes.
Despite its contributions, the present study is not without limitations. Certain confounding variables, such as cognitive functioning and socioeconomic status, were not controlled, which may influence the generalizability of the results. Additionally, the reliance on convenience sampling limits the representativeness of the findings beyond the specific demographic studied. Nevertheless, this research offers valuable insights into the developmental psychopathology of adolescents, underscoring the critical interplay between early adverse experiences, personality organization, and subsequent behavioral manifestations.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the findings of this study reveal a significant prevalence of socio-emotional difficulties among adolescents in Mashhad, with social withdrawal and hyperactivity/restlessness identified as the most prominent internalizing and externalizing manifestations, respectively. The analysis confirms that childhood trauma and borderline personality features serve as robust predictors of these challenges, likely mediated by complex neurobiological dysregulations and maladaptive psychosocial pathways. These results underscore the urgent necessity for early intervention initiatives grounded in trauma-informed care and focused on enhancing affective regulation skills. Furthermore, establishing targeted public awareness campaigns and providing accessible, specialized counseling for adolescents and their families are imperative to address this public health concern and mitigate its potential long-term adverse sequelae.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their sincere appreciation to all the adolescents who participated in this study. Their cooperation, patience, and commitment were invaluable in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the research findings.
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The study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of parenting effectiveness training on parenting stress and academic vitality of Afghan immigrant students with specific learning disabilities living in Isfahan. The research utilized a quasi-experimental method with a pre-test and post-test design, including ...
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The study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of parenting effectiveness training on parenting stress and academic vitality of Afghan immigrant students with specific learning disabilities living in Isfahan. The research utilized a quasi-experimental method with a pre-test and post-test design, including a control group. For this purpose, 30 Afghan students living in Isfahan and their parents who were studying in the second year of primary school and in grades four to six in the academic year 2023-2024 were selected using a multi-stage sampling method and according to the criteria for entering the study and were randomly assigned to two experimental groups (15 people) and control (15 people). Parents in the experimental group underwent performance program training for two months, in eight 90-minute sessions. The control group did not receive any intervention during this period. To collect data, valid and standard instruments were used, including the Abdin Parenting Stress Questionnaire (1990), the Dehghanizadeh and Hosseinchari Academic Vitality Questionnaire (2012), and Raven's Progressive Matrices. The data were examined and analyzed using the analysis of covariance statistical method.The results showed that there was a significant difference between the performance of the two experimental and control groups in the variables of parenting stress and academic vitality in the post-test phase.In summary, it can be concluded that parenting effectiveness training was effective in reducing parenting stress and improving students' academic vitality, and its use is recommended to therapists, educators, psychologists, and counselors.
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