Document Type : Research Paper
Author
Abstract
Computed Tomography Scan (CT Scan) was the first neurological imaging equipment used on a large scale which allowed the assessment of structural lesions of the brain such as tumors and stroke. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) enabled the more precise investigation of smaller lesions of the brain as well as abnormalities of the white matter. In addition to neurostructural imaging by means of CT Scan and MRI which occurred in neurofunctional imaging, it enabled clinical scientists to gain a unique knowledge of the human brain by using Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT). The literature discussed specifically with regard to ADHD is the result of the latest studies and investigations achieved via modern neurological imaging techniques.
By using the library method, the latest papers published in the PubMed website, American Journal of Psychiatry (AJP), British Journal of Psychiatry (BJP), and Neuroscience website in this area during a specific period of time from 2007 to 2014 were investigated.
The findings of the investigation of damaged areas by means of imaging showed that none of the studies discussed a specific region or part of the brain as the main site of likely damages responsible for ADHD, neither did they make any definite emphasis or have consensus. Each study mentioned a different area or region of the brain as being responsible for such disorder. Despite the willingness and aim of all researchers involved in the areas of psychiatry and other neurological sciences, none of the functions or disorders of the brain has been attributed to a specific part or structure of the brain so far, because the brain functions as a very complex system consisting of billions of intertwined neurons and synaptic structures thus making it impossible to segregate and determine the duties of each part of the brain without investigating the other parts of the brain and their relationships with one another. That is why the general term of ‘minimal brain damage’ was used to explain the cerebral pathology of this disorder in the past, and it has not lost its application despite all the advancements made in this area.
Keywords
کاپلان و سادوک،(۲۰۱۰). دستنامه روانپزشکی بالینی ،چاپ سوم ، ترجمه محسن ارجمند، فرزین رضاعی،۱۳۹۱ ،تهران: انتشارات ارجمند.
Almedia LG , Ricardo-garcell J , Paradoh ,and et all(2010)Reduced RT frontal cortical thikness in children ,adolescence and its correlation to clinical variables:a case sectional study. Journal Of Psychiatr Res, 44(16):1214-23.
Almedia montes LG , Rcardo-garcell J, Barajas de lac torre LB and et all(2010)Clinical correlations of grey matter reductions in the caudate nucleus of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal Of Psychiatry Neurosience,35(4):238-46.
Aquiar A , Eubig PA , Schantz ST(2010)Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a focused overview for children's environmental health researchers. Environmental Health Prospective:118(12):1646-53.
Anstien TJ, Max JE , Schacher R and et all(2013)Response inhibition in children with and without ADHD after traumatic brain injury. Journal Of Neuropsychology, 7(1)1-11.
BoasFE, Flishman D(2012) CT Artifacts :Causes and reduction techniques . Imaging Medicin,42(20)227-240
Batty MJ , Liddle EB , Pitiot A and et all(2010)Cortical gray matter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a structural magnetic resonance imaging study.. Journal Of American academic child adolescence psychiatry ,49(3):229-80.
Bledsoe JC, Semrad-cllikeman M , Pliszka SR
(2011)Neuroanatomical and neuropsychological correlates of the cerebellum in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder--combined type. Journal Of Academic Child Adolescence Psychiatry,50(6):593-601
Bleodose JC , Semrad-clikeman M and et all(2013)Anterior cingulate cortex and symptom severity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal Of Abnormal Psychology:122(2)558-65.
Cubillo A , Halari R , Giampitrtro V and et all( 2011)Fronto-striatal underactivation during interference inhibition and attention allocation in grown up children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and persistent symptoms.Psychiatry Res .30:193(1):17-27
Cubillo A , Halari R, Echer C and et all(2010)Reduced activation and inter-regional functional connectivity of fronto-striatal networks in adults with childhood Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and persisting symptoms during tasks of motor inhibition . J psychiatry res .44(10):629-39.
Carmona S , proal E , Hockzema EA and et all.(2009)Ventro-striatal reductions underpin symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.Biological Psychiatry ,15:66(10)972-7.
Cortese S , Castellanos FX(2012)Neuroimaging of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: current neuroscience-informed perspectives for clinicians.Curr Psychiatry Rep, 14(5):568-78
Carrey N, Bernier D , Gunde E , and et all(2012)Smaller volumes of caudate nuclei in prepubertal children with ADHD: impact of age.Journal Psychiatric Res.46(8):1066-72.
Coa M , Shu N , Coa Q ,and et all(2014)Imaging functional and structural brain connectomics in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Neurobiolology,50(3):1111-23
Chan E, Mattingley JB , and et all(2009) Abnormal spatial asymmetry of selective attention in ADHD. Journal Of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.50(9)1064-72
Cortez S,Kelly C ,Chabernaud C (2012)Toward Systems Neuroscience Of ADHD:A meta analysis of 55 FMRI sTUDIES.The A merican Journal Of Psychiatry ,169, 1035-1055.
Chiang H , Chen XJ ,And et all(2015)Altered whith matter tract property related to impaired focused attention sustained impulsivity and vigilance in ADHD.Journal Of psychiatry and neuroscience;14,40(2).
DucharmeS, Hudziak JJ , Batteron KN and et all(2012)Decreased regional cortical thickness and thinning rate are associated with inattention symptoms in healthy children. Journal Of American Academic Adolescence Psychiatry, 51(1)18-27.
Duerden EG , Tannock R ,Dockstader C(2012)Altered cortical morphology in sensorimotor processing regions in adolescents and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Brain Res ,22, 1445-82-91
Frodi T, Skokauskas N(2012)Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica,125 (2):114-26.
Goto Y , Hatakeyama K, Kitamat T and et all(2010)Saccade eye movements as a quantitative measure of frontostriatal network in children with ADHD. Brain Dev .32(5):347-55.
Ghassbian A , Herba CM , Govart P and et(2013)Infant brain structures, executive function, and attention deficit/hyperactivity problems at preschool age. A prospective study. Journal Of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 54(1):96-104.
Lopez-larson MP , King JB , Terry S , McGlade EC(2012)Reduced insular volume in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res,204(1):32-9.
McNally MA , Corcetti D, Mahon EM , and et all(2010)Corpus callosum segment circumference is associated with response control in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).Journal Of Child Neurology 25(4):453-62.
McAlona GM , Cheung V , Chua SE , and et all(2009) Age-related grey matter volume correlates of response inhibition and shifting in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br Journal Of Psychiatry.194(2):123-9.
Montes LG ,Ricardo-Garcell ,Dellatore LB and et all (2011)Cerebellar gray matter density in females with ADHD combined type: a cross-sectional voxel-based morphometry study. Journal Of Attention Disorder.15(5):368-81.
Makris N , Biederman J, Monuteaux MC , and et all(2009)Towards conceptualizing a neural systems-based anatomy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuroscience,31(1-2):36-94.
Mahone EM , Crocetti D , and et all(2011)A preliminary neuroimaging study of preschool children with ADHD. Clinical Neuropsychol:25(6):1009-25.
Negoro H , Sawada M , Lida J and et all (2010)Prefrontal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. Child Psychiatry Human Developmental ,41(2):193-203.
Nagel BJ, BathulaD, Herting M and et all (2011)Altered white matter microstructure in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal Of American Academic Child Adolescence Psychiatry,50(3):283-92.
Perlov E, Philipsen A and et all(2009)Spectroscopic findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: review and meta-analysis. Word Journal Of Biological Psychiatry,10(4 pt 2):355-65.
Rubia K, Halari R Cubillo A, Mohamad AM and et all(2010)Disorder-specific inferior prefrontal hypofunction in boys with pure attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder compared to boys with pure conduct disorder during cognitive flexibility. Human Brain Mapp,31(12):1823-33
Silk T,Vancen A,Riebert G And et all(2005)Fronto -Parietal Activity in ADHD Combind type fMRI Study.British Journal Of Psychiatry 87.3.282/
Shinapoli KJ , Skacher R (2011) Trumatic brain injury and secondary adhd in childeren and addolescent :The effect of reward on inhibitory control . Journal Of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychiatry, 33(7)855-9.
Shaw P , Gilliam M , Liverpool M(2011)Cortical development in typically developing children with symptoms of hyper reactivity and impulsivity-support for a dimensional view of adhd . American Journal Of Psychiatry,168(2):143-5
Silk TJ , VanceA, Rinehart N ,Bradshaw JL , Connington R,(2009)Structural development of the basal ganglia in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Psychiatry Res,30,172(3):220-5.
Seripada C , Kessler D ,Fang Y , Welsh RC, and et all(2014)Disrupted network architecture of the resting brain in adhd. Human Brain Mapp.35(9):4693-705.
Shalev L,Clodny T ,And et all(2015)attention FUNCTIONING AMONG ADOLESCENCE WITH MULTIPLE LEARNING ,ATYPICAL BEHAVIORAL ,AND EMOTIONAL DIFFICULTIES.JOURNAL oF LEARNING DISABILITY 2015,
Tripp G ,Wickens JR (2009)Neurobiology of ADHD. Neuropharmachology, 57(7-8):579-89.
Verkhliutov VM , Gapienko GV, and et all(2009)[MRI morphometry of the brain ventricles in patients with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Zn Vyssh Nerv Deiat Im i P Pavlova, 59(1);34-44.
Van ,t Ent D , Van bijstervedt CE, Hudziak JJ Vetman DJ, and et all.(2009)Neuroimaging of response interference in twins concordant or discordant for inattention and hyperactivity symptoms.. Neuroscince,164(1):16-29
Van wingen GA, Van den brik W , Veltman DJ(2013)Reduced striatal brain volums in non medicated adult adhd patients with combed cocaien dependence . Drug Alcohol Dependence, 131(3)198-203
Vink M .Zandbelt BB ,GadwinTand et all(2014)Frontostriatalactivity and connectivity increased during proactive inhibition across adolescence and early adulthood . Human Brain Mapp, 36(9):4415-27.
Wolf JF, Milkovic S, Osswald N and et all( 2011)Agenesis of the corpus callosum: Cognitive and neuropsychiatric symptoms in children and adolescents--a case report]. Z Kinder jugendpsychiather, 39(3); 207-13.
Wang L , Zhu C and et all.(2009)Altered small-world brain functional networks in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Human Brain Mapp, 30(2); 638-49.
)