Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of environmental variables (parent-child relationship), locus of control, and academic performance to explain the depression of the children with ADHD. After screening the fifth grade elementary school students by Conner's teacher rating scale, throughDiagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (according to DSM-IV), 113 children were selected as the clinical group. Behavioral management and parenting stress scales as ADHD symptoms indicators were given to mothers, and academic performance test, parent-child relationship questionnaire,locus of control and depression scale were administrated on the children. Pearson correlation coefficientsindicated positive relationships between depression with inattention dimension.There was also a significant relationship between the three mediating variables with depression and inattention dimension of ADHD. Structural equation modeling indicated the importance of parent-child relationship as a mediator variable for inattention-depression relationship. Academic achievement and locus of control couldn’t beeffective mediators in this model. Results of the current study implied the importance of parent-child relationship in ADHD children's depression. This result should be more considered in counselingwith these children.

Keywords

دهشیری، غ؛ نجفی، م.، شیخی؛حبیبی عسگر‌آباد،م. (1388). بررسی مقدماتی ویژگی‌های روانسنجی پرسش‌نامه افسردگی کودکان (CDI). فصلنامه خانواده پژوهشی، 18(5)، 177- 159.
شهیم، س؛ یوسفی، ف؛ شهائیان، آ. (1386).  هنجاریابی و ویژگی‌های روانسنجی مقیاس درجه‌بندی کانرز- فرم معلم. مجلهعلومتربیتیوروانشناسی، 14(1)، 26-1.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.
Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting Stress Index (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL:  Psychological Assessment Resources.
Angold, A. E., Costello, J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal ofChild Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57–87.
August, G. J., Realmuto, G. M., Crosby, R. D., & MacDonald, A. W., III.  (1995). Community-based multiple-gating screening of children at risk for conduct disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 521– 544.
Barkley, R. A. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbookfor diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford Press.
Bird, H. R., Gould, M. S.,& Staghezza, B. M. (1993). Patterns of diagnostic comorbidity in a community sample of children aged 9 through 16 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 361-368.
Blechman, E. A., McEnroe, M. J., Carella, E. T., & Audette, D. P. (1986). Childhood competence and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology,  95, 223–227.
Butler, S. F., Arrendondo, D. E., & McCloskey, V. (1995). Affective comorbidity in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 7, 51-55.
Chorpita, B. F., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). Perceived control as a mediator of family environment in etiological models of childhood anxiety. Behavior Therapist, 29, 457–476.
Cole, D. A., & Turner, J. E. (1993). Models of cognitive mediation and moderation in child depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 271–281.
Cole, D. A., Jacquez, F. M., & Maschman, T. L. (2001). Social origins of depressive cognitions: A longitudinal study of self-perceived competence in children. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 377–395.
Deault, L. C. (2010). A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41, 168 –192.
DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. P., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Reid, R.  (1998). ADHD rating scale-IV. New York, NY: Guilford.
Garber, J., & Horowitz, J. L. (2002). Depression in children. In I. H. Gotlib & C. H. Hammen (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 510–540). New York: Guilford Press.
Han, S. S., Weisz, J. R., & Weiss, B. (2001). Specificity of relations between children’s control-related beliefs and internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 240–251.
Harter, S. (1989). Cause, correlates, and the functional role of global self-worth: A life-span perspective. In J. Kolligian & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Perceptions of competence and incompetence across the lifespan  (pp. 67–97). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Herman, K. C., Lambert, S. F., Ialongo, N. S., & Ostrander, R. (2007). Academic pathways between attention problems and depressive symptoms among urban African American children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 265–274.
Hoza, B., Gerdes, A. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., Pelham, W. E., Molina, et al. (2004). Self-perceptions of competence in children with ADHD and comparison children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 382–391.
Humphreys, K. L., & Lee, S. S., & Hammen, C. (2013). The Association of ADHD and Depression: Mediation by Peer Problems and Parent–Child Difficulties in Two Complementary Samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 122,854–867.
Jensen, P. S. (2003). Comorbidity and child psychopathology: Recommendations for the next decade. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 293–300.
Jensen, P. S., Martin, B. A., & Cantwell, D. P. (1997). Comorbidity in ADHD: Implications for research practice and DSM-IV. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1065-1079.
Katz, S. J., Conway, C. C., Hammen, C. L., Brennan, P. A., & Najman,  J. M. (2011). Childhood social withdrawal, interpersonal impairment,  and young adult depression: A mediational model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 1227–1238.
Linn, R. T., & Hodge, G. K. (1982). Locus of control in child hyperactivity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 592–593.
Marton, P., Golombek, H., Stein, B., & Korenblum, M. (1988). The relation of personality functions and adaptive skills to self-esteem in early adolescence. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 17, 393–401.
McCauley, E. Mitchell, J. R., Burke, P., & Moss, S. (1988). Cognitive attributes of depression in children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 903–908.
McLeod, B. D., Weisz, J. R., & Wood, J. L. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood depression: A metaanalysis.  Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 986–1003.
Ostrander, R., & Herman, K. C. (2006). Potential cognitive, parenting, and developmental mediators of the relationship between ADHD and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 89–98.
Patterson, G. R., & Stoolmiller, M. (1991). Replications of a dual failure model for boys’ depressed mood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 491–498.
Rapee, R. (1997). Potential role of childrearing practices in the development of anxiety and depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 47–67.
Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). Behavioral Assessment System for Children manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service
Rudolph, K. D., Kurlakowsky, K. D., & Conley, C. S. (2001). Developmental and social-contextual origins of depressive control-related beliefs and behavior. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 447–475.
Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Prior, M. (1996). Connections between reading disability and behavior problems: Testing temporal and causal hypotheses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 363–383.
Stice, E., Ragan, J., & Randall, P. (2004). Prospective relations between social support and depression: Differential direction of effects for parent and peer support? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 155–159.
Walker, L. S., Garber, J., & Greene, J. (1993). Psychosocial correlates of recurrent childhood pain: A comparison of pediatric patients with recurrent abdominal pain, organic illness, and psychiatric disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 248–258.
Weisz, J. R., Southam-Gerow, M. A., & McCarty, C. A. (2001). Controlrelated beliefs and depressive symptoms in clinic-referred children and adolescents: Developmental differences and model specificity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 97–109.
Willcutt, E. G., Nigg, J. T., Pennington, B. F., Solanto, M. V., Rohde,  L. A., Tannock, R., . . . Lahey, B. B. (2012). Validity of DSM–IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes.  Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 121, 991–1010.