Document Type : Research Paper
Authors
1 PhD Student in Psychology and Education of Exceptional Children, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran.
2 Associate Professor, Department of Psychology and Education of Exceptional Children, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran.
3 Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, Iran.
Abstract
The primary objective of this study was to devise and validate a cognitive empowerment program grounded in the Embodiment approach and to investigate its effectiveness in enhancing pre-mathematical skills and visual-spatial working memory in preschool children. The chosen research methodology was a semiexperimental design consisting of a pre-test/post-test comparison with a control group. The purpose of the research was to address practical concerns, and the data collection method employed a mixed (qualitative-quantitative) approach. The target population consisted of 5 to 7-year-old preschool children residing in Tehran, and a total of 30 participants (15 experimental and 15 control groups) were selected through a multi-stage cluster sampling technique and randomly assigned to either the experimental or control groups. In the subsequent phase of the study, two assessments were administered as a pre-test to the participants: the Basic Mathematics Skills test developed by Kohan Sedgh (1997) and the Visual-Spatial Working Memory tasks, specifically the mazes memory and block recall components, from the Working Memory Test Battery for Children (WMTB-C) by Pickering & Gathercole (2001). To evaluate the proposed hypotheses, the MANCOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Covariance) and ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) statistical analyses were implemented using the SPSS 25 software. The findings of the study revealed a significant impact of the cognitive empowerment program with the embodied approach on enhancing pre-mathematical skills in several domains, namely numbers and operations, measurement, basic calculations, and geometry. Additionally, the program was found to have a positive effect on the visual-spatial working memory subtest. Based on these results, it can be surmised that the cognitive empowerment program, grounded in the Embodied Approach, engages multiple systems – including the nervous, sensory, motor, and cognitive systems – simultaneously through direct involvement in physical and movement experiences.
Keywords: Cognitive Empowerment Program; Embodiment; Pre-Math Skills; Visual-Spatial Working Memory; Preschool Children.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Numerous studies within the realm of preschool education have highlighted that children who receive ample learning experiences during this developmental stage exhibit improved academic performance in elementary school. Therefore, it is imperative to prioritize both the quality of education and the extent of children's access to education during this formative period. Preschool mathematics is particularly recognized for its significant role in fostering cognitive development among young children, with its efficacy proven by various research findings, as pointed out by Linder and Simpson (2017).
The Basic Math Skills Training Program is regarded as an effective intervention method for mitigating math difficulties and promoting the mathematical progression of children with disabilities (Ahmadi et al., 2016). For instance, early counting proficiency has been identified as the strongest predictor of future advancements in mathematics (Nguyen et al., 2016). Furthermore, both counting skills and the ability to operate on numbers have been validated as key indicators of mathematical competence in the early years of elementary school (Raudenbush et al., 2017).
Additionally, research findings highlight that one of the primary indicators of preschool children's proficiency in mathematics, particularly non-verbal mathematical reasoning, is visual-spatial working memory (Wiest et al., 2020). There exists a significant association between visual-spatial working memory and essential mathematical skills, such as counting and mathematical reasoning (Bull et al., 2008). Studies have also examined the impact of embodied cognition, indicating that connecting embodied movements to cognitive tasks can result in improved working memory and visual-spatial working memory functioning (Schafer, 2019; Van der Stigchel, 2020
Embodied cognition is an emerging epistemological paradigm that has sparked creative educational research approaches in the design and analysis of education and learning through Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) frameworks. According to the principles of embodied cognition, conceptual learning can emerge from motor experiences, even before explicit representations of targeted concepts are achieved through movement (Abrahamson et al., 2020). A significant discovery of cognitive science is that concepts are formed indirectly through bodily experiences, rather than being abstract ideas conveyed through spoken language alone (Mirzabeygi, 2016). The Cognitive Science of Mathematics delves into how cognitive mechanisms utilized in everyday non-mathematical thinking can foster mathematical comprehension and structure mathematical concepts and ideas.
The research findings highlight that mathematics challenges can be anticipated in children even before they receive formal instruction (Seo and Bryant, 2012). Children at the preschool age are highly reliant on sensory-motor experiences, suggesting that education based on embodied experiences would be more impactful during this developmental stage. In light of these considerations, the purpose of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of the Cognitive Empowerment Program, employing an Embodied Approach, in enhancing pre-mathematical skills and visual-spatial active memory among preschool children.
Literature Review
Cognitive empowerment pertains to educational instructional methods aimed at enhancing cognitive functions, encompassing skills such as learning, attention, visual-spatial perception, listening comprehension, memory, and executive functions (Robertson, 1999). The concept of embodiment, proposed by phenomenologists, seeks to reject the dualism between body and mind, emphasizing that most cognitive characteristics are shaped by existing physical dimensions and developed through interactions with the environment via the movement system and physical interactions. Overall, the body and environmental stimuli play a pivotal role in cognition (Shapiro and Spalding, 2019).
Pre-mathematical skills encompass foundational concepts that serve as the groundwork for grasping more advanced mathematical concepts, involving processes such as sorting, ordering, maintaining numbers mentally, sustaining quantities mentally, geometric understanding, and recognizing similarities and differences (Kohan Sedgh, 1997). Visual-spatial working memory plays a crucial role in the temporary storage of visual and spatial information, such as remembering objects and locations. It encompasses two components: the visual component is responsible for storing visual information, including details about shapes and colors, while the spatial component is accountable for remembering spatial information, like directional information, etc. (Baddeley, 2006).
Methodology
The research design for this study employed a semi-experimental approach, with a pre-test/post-test design accompanied by a control group. This research pursued practical goals, and the data collection method incorporated a mixed approach of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. The statistical population of the study consisted of all 5-to-7-year-old preschool children in Tehran. A multi-stage cluster sampling technique was employed to randomly select 30 participants, evenly distributed into 15 experimental and 15 control groups. During the ensuing phase of the investigation, two assessments were administered as a pre-test to the participants. Specifically, Basic Mathematical Skill Test by Kohan Sedgh (1997) and Visual-Spatial Working Memory Components of the Working Memory Test Battery for Children (WMTB-C) (Pickering & Gathercole, 2001) were utilized. The Mancova and Ancova statistical analysis methods were deployed to test the hypotheses.
A multi-stage selection process was applied, with random assignment of participants. The research included children from four preschools within the 5th educational district of Tehran. This approach was taken to prioritize the selection of children aged 5 to 7 years who appeared lower in learning abilities, based on the teacher's evaluation of their performance relative to the class average.
In the subsequent stage of the study, the Basic Math Skills Test by Kohan-Sedgh (1997) was administered to identify children at risk of math problems. This testing led to the selection of participants scoring 40 or below. Additional criteria for inclusion in the study were the absence of physical, visual, and hearing disabilities, as well as an intelligence score higher than 85, as determined using the Brief IQ Scores for the 5th Edition of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. The participants were excluded from the study if they met any of the following criteria: absence of three or more educational sessions, failure to respond to questions in the pre-test or post-test assessments, unwillingness to participate in the research, or illness that prevented attendance at sessions. These exclusion criteria aimed to maintain the integrity of the findings by ensuring complete participation and adequate data collection.
The procedure for implementing the program involved four primary areas and 26 distinct skills, complemented by 32 educational games. Initially, the new students underwent initial screening based on teacher referral, followed by the administration of a short set of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale to evaluate participants. Once the students were identified, they were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control groups, and subsequently tested on their pre-mathematical abilities. In the continuation of the study, the participants underwent assessments for basic mathematical skills (Kohan Sedgh, 1997) and visual-spatial working memory subtests (Mazemen and Recall Block) from the Working Memory Test Battery for Children as part of a 90-minute pre-test session. Subsequently, the children within the experimental group received the cognitive rehabilitation program based on Embodied Approach in groups of five over the span of 15 sessions. Each session lasted 60 minutes and was conducted three times a week.
Results
The results of univariate covariance analysis indicated that the mean post-test scores of the experimental group in the classification variable was significantly higher than the control group: {F (1,22) = 24/52, P<0/001, ŋ2= 0/48}.
The average of the post-test scores of the experimental group in the alignment variable was significantly higher than the control group: {F (1,22) = 3/61, P>0/03, ŋ2= 0/17}.
The mean post-test scores of the experimental group in the variable of mental retention of numbers was significantly higher than the control group: {F (1,22) = 10/70, P<0/003, ŋ2= 0/29}.
The mean post-test scores of the experimental group in the geometry variable was significantly higher than the control group: {F (1,22) = 11/58, P<0/002, ŋ2= 0/33}.
The average post-test scores of the experimental group in the variable of recognizing differences and similarities was significantly higher than the control group: {F (1,22) = 17/44, P<0/001, ŋ2= 0/39}.
The mean post-test scores of the experimental group in visual-spatial active memory variable was significantly higher than the control group: {F (1,22) = 21/33, P<0/001, ŋ2= 0/51}.
Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the cognitive empowerment program, based on the embodiment approach, had the most significant impact on visual-spatial working memory, distinguishing between differences and similarities, geometry, and mentally retaining numbers, respectively.
Discussion
The research outcomes consistently indicate that the cognitive empowerment program integrated with the embodiment approach has a significant impact on pre-mathematical skills and visual-spatial working memory among preschool children. This finding aligns with the findings of research conducted by Schaefer (2019), which demonstrated that visual-spatial working memory can be improved by performing embodiment tasks. Moreover, this study further highlights the importance of the body as a powerful learning tool for understanding and absorbing educational subjects through embodied activities. Kruger and Ebersbach (2018), in their research titled “Mental Rotation and the Body," concluded that mental rotation functions better in stimuli that are more anatomically compatible with the human body's anatomy. This is because imagery is primarily predicated on the process of primary sensory-motor, originating from the body's physical structures. This implies that the embodiment approach, which emphasizes the integration of body movement and cognitive processes, might be particularly effective in enhancing mental rotation abilities. Ahmadi et al. (2015) conducted research to explore the impact of executive function and pre-mathematical skills training programs on the cognitive and academic abilities of math students considered at risk. The findings indicated an enhancement in math skills and working memory components, along with an observable improvement in cognitive flexibility. This suggests that focused training in executive function and pre-mathematical skills can have positive effects on the overall cognitive development and academic performance of children.
The findings of the present research are compatible with the conclusions drawn by Alexander and Rey (2018) regarding the influence of embodied activities on cognitive processes such as learning, memory, and recall. Embodied approach, by involving more senses and direct interaction with the surrounding environment, increases the clarity and vividness of mental representations of objects and concepts and improves encoding and processing of environmental information. This, in turn, facilitates the learning and recall process. Furthermore, movement, as a cornerstone of embodied approach, can lessen the cognitive burden on the brain, allowing more resources to be allocated to other tasks or cognitive processes. As a consequence, this can lead to an enhancement in overall cognitive performance, particularly within the domain of mathematics. Additionally, in the embodiment approach, visual-spatial working memory gains access to a larger pool of information and data for manipulation and analysis, ultimately leading to an improvement in both visual-spatial working memory functions and other cognitive processes.
Conclusion
This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of the Cognitive Empowerment Program, grounded in the Embodied Approach, on the advancement of pre-mathematical skills and visual-spatial working memory among preschool children. The findings indicated that the program indeed contributes to the improvement of pre-mathematical abilities and visual-spatial working memory in preschool-age children. Engaging in physical and movement-based activities, which possess a playful and entertaining nature, can foster greater motivation among children for cooperation and involvement. This increased engagement leads to heightened attention being directed towards information and ideas, ultimately resulting in enhanced learning opportunities. This, in turn, can facilitate the development of fundamental math skills and significantly improve the performance of visual-spatial working memory.
The embodiment approach, by involving the integration of body, senses, and cognitive processes in a multi-faceted manner, influences the manner in which information is encoded, stored, and recalled. Our embodiment, through the physical body, plays a crucial role in influencing our experiences, perceptions, and interactions with the world surrounding us. Moreover, the visualization of data and the utilization of visual information and tools lead to increased engagement of the visual-spatial working memory, subsequently strengthening its functioning. It is important to acknowledge that a notable limitation of this research was the implementation on a study sample composed solely of female participants. This could potentially compromise the generalizability of the findings. As such, it is recommended that future studies be conducted on samples comprising male students to enhance the generalizability of the research outcomes. Additionally, the absence of a follow-up group poses a limitation in this research and warrants future exploration with the inclusion of such groups for enhanced reliability and validity. The intensity of the training schedule, spanning 15 sessions of 60 minutes each (with a frequency of three sessions per week for approximately two months), might restrict the findings to this particular timeframe, thereby suggesting further investigations using different program durations.
Acknowledgments
The author expresses sincere gratitude to all those who supported the conduct of this research, extending heartfelt appreciation to the parents of preschool children and the teaching staff of the schools involved. Their collaboration and support were invaluable and instrumental in the successful completion of the study.
Keywords
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