The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of teaching based on the reading motivation model and teaching phono-graphix method on executive functions and reading performance in students with reading difficulties. The method of the current research was a semi-experimental type of pre-test and post-test with a control group. The statistical population included all students (boys and girls) in the fourth and fifth grades of elementary school with reading problems in the city of Aligudarz who were studying in the academic year 2018-2019, and among them, 45 people (30 the experimental group and 15 people of the control group) were selected randomly as the sample size. The tools used in the research included the executive functions of Coolidge et al. (2002) and the reading and dyslexia test (NAMA) by Korminuri and Moradi (2004). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (univariate covariance analysis). The results of the research showed that there is no significant difference between the educational packages used in the research on the variables (F:0/57, P:0/45). Therefore, based on the findings of this research, the use of both intervention methods is effective for students with reading difficulties.
Keywords: Reading Motivation Model, Phono-Graphix Method, Executive Functions, Reading Performance, Reading Difficulties.
 
 
 
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Learning disabilities are intimately associated with the realms of psychology and psychology theory. A distinct learning disability can both precipitate difficulties in acquiring specific academic skills and be intricately interconnected with other developmental disorders, such as Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Compton et al., 2020). It is observed that children afflicted with learning disorders, while appearing outwardly normal and possessing standard intelligence, account for a significant portion of the population, with prevalence rates estimated at 2 to 10 percent, as stipulated in the Revised Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. Notably, boys exhibit a disproportionate representation, with the gender ratio being approximately 3:1. The identification of such children typically does not occur in preschool years, and it is only when they enter school, particularly during their first and second years, that their challenges in reading, writing, and comprehending mathematics become evident (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).
Dyslexia represents the most common and significant learning impairment among children, as defined by the Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The definition of reading disorder, according to this source, is as follows: a condition characterized by reading development that is markedly deficient in comparison to age, education, and estimated cognitive ability (Yahyazadeh and Hossein Khanzadeh, 2014). Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that impairs a child's reading ability and fundamental language processing skills (Grigorenko & Wagner, 2000). These children require substantial support from both their parents and teachers during the learning process (Rosemari et al., 2020).
Literature Review
A burgeoning body of research evidence indicates a correlation between individuals with learning disabilities and underperforming in numerous aspects of executive functions (Narimani et al., 2016; Deng et al., 2021). The conceptualization of executive functions, deeply rooted in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience, pertains to a set of top-down cognitive control processes that regulate conduct, thoughts, and emotions (Stromback et al., 2020).
A notable issue associated with executive functions weakness concerns a person's lackluster performance in reading abilities. In essence, poor competence in reading skills manifests (Dehghan et al., 2016). Reading is both a receptive and decoding skillset wherein the reader accurately articulates the author's message. According to the perspective of the National Reading Board, reading extends beyond just correct word pronunciation, encompassing five core areas: awareness of phonetics, auditory discrimination and syllabic composition of words, comprehending written content, acquiring vocabulary, and grasping the context (August et al., 2009; Gough & Tunmer, 2016). This study aims to comparatively evaluate the efficacy of two instructional approaches, namely teaching grounded in the reading motivation model and phono-graphix method instruction, on executive functions and reading performance among students experiencing reading difficulties.
Methodology
The chosen research design entailed a semi-experimental setup, incorporating a pre-test and follow-up assessment using a control group. The statistical population comprised every student (boys and girls) in grades four and five of elementary school who encountered reading challenges in the city of Aligudarz during the academic year 2018-2019. Among the participants in this study, a total of 45 individuals were randomly selected, equally divided among three groups: the experimental group receiving instruction based on the reading motivation model, the experimental group taught utilizing the phono-graphix method, and the control group.
Instruments Used
This study employed the "Checklist of Dyslexia Symptoms," a screening tool developed by Bazrafshan (2016), to identify students exhibiting signs of dyslexia. The "Executive Functions Questionnaire" developed by Coolidge, Thede, Stewart, and Segal (2002) was utilized to measure executive functions among this study's participants, specifically children and adolescents aged between 5 and 17 years old. The Reading and Dyslexia Test, developed by Karaminuri and Moradi (2014), was administered to assess participants' reading abilities and aid in the diagnosis of dyslexia within this study.
The selected participants were divided into two distinct groups; one group underwent 9 sessions (2 sessions per week, each lasting 45 minutes) for a duration of a month and a half, training with instructional methods grounded in the reading motivation model. The other group endured 12 sessions (2 sessions per week, each lasting 45 minutes), for a month and a half, learning through the phono-graphix instructional technique. Following the conclusion of the instructional program, a follow-up examination was conducted for both the experimental and control groups and the resulting data was scrutinized using univariate and multivariate ANCOVA analysis employing the SPSS24 statistical software.
Results
Table 3. The results of MANKOVA on the average scores of executive functions and reading performance




Statistical power


Effect size


significant level


DF


F-ratio


value


index




1


0.33


0.001


2


6.37


0.33


Pillai Trace




1


0.33


0.001


2


6.37


0.67


Wilks' Lambda




1


0.33


0.001


2


6.37


0.50


Hoteling’s Trace




 
1


 
0.33


 
0.001


 
2


 
6.37


 
0.50


Roy’s Largest




To ascertain whether the independent variable exerted an impact on the dependent variables, the Wilkes lambda results were consulted, revealing that the F value (F = 6.37, p < 0.001) confirms the presence of significant differences in the average scores of at least one of the executive functions and reading performance variables among the examined instructional approaches. The subsequent evaluation was executed using Univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to establish the disparities between the contrasted instructional packages in the follow-up stage. The resulting data are exhibited in Table 4.
Table 4. The results of ANCOVA analysis test on the average post-test scores of executive functions and reading performance.




Eta


Significance level


F


MSE


DF


Sst


Variation source


Variable






0.064
 
-
 


0.45


0.57


30.817


1


30.817


Between-group Analysis


Executive Functions




-
 


-


53.858


58


3123.767


In-group


 




0.06
 
-


0.63


0.24


40.01


1


40.01


Between-group Analysis


Reading Performance




-


-


167.94


58


9740.83


In-group


 




Upon analyzing the results of the Univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), no substantial difference was identified between the instructional packages employed within this study concerning the measured variables. As such, the utilization of follow-up tests is not considered feasible or appropriate.
Discussion
The primary aim of this study was to assess and compare the impact of teaching based on the reading motivation model and the phono-graphix method on executive functions and reading performance in students exhibiting reading challenges. The outcomes of the Univariate Variance Analysis indicated that there was no significant variation in the effectiveness of both instructional interventions on the executive functions. Given that the executive function is a significant cognitive and metacognitive capacity (Alizadeh, 2015), teaching students the combined intervention of the cognitive and metacognitive skills model, and implementing these strategies, can successfully enhance the executive functions of students grappling with reading difficulties.
Another aspect to consider is the inherent match between the phono-graphix method and the innate learning abilities of children. By incorporating engaging educational activities, children become more involved in the learning process. Through a self-discovery process of sound placement within words and the subsequent formation of words, children find the experience enjoyable, resulting in increased ease and success in learning. This ultimately leads to improved executive function abilities in children.
Furthermore, the research findings revealed no substantial difference between the two educational interventions in terms of reading performance. This may be explained by the fact that students with learning disabilities are less proficient in utilizing learning strategies, in comparison to their non-disabled peers. Various other studies have corroborated the notion that teaching self-regulation strategies enhances students' reading abilities.
Conclusion
It is noteworthy that this study holds the distinction of being the first in the country to comparatively examine the efficacy of two teaching methodologies grounded in the reading motivation model and the phono-graphix method on the executive functions and reading performance in students confronted with reading difficulties. A significant limitation of the current study pertained to the limited time and location parameters, which affected the follow-up assessment. It is proposed that future supplementation of this research should incorporate a follow-up test. Additionally, a recommendation is made to undertake a comparative analysis of the efficacy of these two methodologies in future research, on students with reading issues in diverse settings. The majority of investigations have focused on dyslexia and it appears there's been inadequate attention paid to children who experience learning challenges in reading yet haven't been diagnosed as dyslexic. Therefore, it is imperative to prioritize reading difficulties among primary school students. It is suggested to arrange workshops for teachers, targeting recognition of students with reading problems, and teach them techniques to apply these interventions effectively to enhance students' reading difficulties.