Abstract
The main objective of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of an emotional recognition intervention on the emotional self-regulation and empathy of children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). The study employed a semi-experimental research design, consisting of a pre-test, a post-test, and a follow-up phase. The statistical population included all children diagnosed with ODD who sought counseling services in Mashhad during the academic year 2023. A total of 30 children were selected as the sample, meeting the inclusion criteria, and subsequently divided into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. The study utilized three assessment tools to gather data: the Children Symptom Inventory-4 (Gadow and Sprafkin, 1994), the Emotion Self-Regulation questionnaire (Shields and Cicchetti, 1997), and the Empathy questionnaire for children and adolescents (Overgaauw et al, 2017). The statistical analysis of the data involved using the analysis of variance with repeated measurements. The results revealed that the experimental group's level of self-regulation and empathy significantly improved after the emotional recognition intervention compared to the control group (P < 0.01), and the positive changes were sustained at the one-month follow-up phase (P < 0.01). The study findings indicate that the emotional recognition intervention was found to be efficacious in increasing the emotional self-regulation and empathy skills of children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD).
Keywords: Oppositional Defiant Disorder; Self-regulation; Empathy; Emotional Recognition Intervention.
 
 
 
Extended Abstract

Introduction

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is a prevalent condition among children and adolescents, characterized by a consistent pattern of irritability, anger, disobedient or provocative behavior, aggression, and spitefulness (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). One contributing factor to rule-breaking, irritability, and aggressive or destructive behaviors in individuals with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is difficulty with emotional self-regulation (Perry et al., 2018; Vazsonyi et al., 2017). In particular, deficits in emotional self-regulation have been linked to impulsive behaviors and involvement in criminal activities (Kleine Deters et al., 2020; Jiang Furthermore, given the prevalence of symptoms such as aggression, irritability, and spitefulness in children and adolescents with ODD, it would be expected that they may exhibit differences in interpersonal relationships and emotion regulation or empathy when compared to typically developing children (Farzadi et al., 2015). Another aspect to consider is that destructive and aggressive behavior in individuals with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) are associated with impaired emotional recognition (Dawel et al., 2012; Schuberth et al., 2019). Difficulty in understanding and encoding emotional states can contribute to increased anger and irritability in ODD patients (Kara et al., 2017). Based on research findings and the knowledge that deficits in emotional self-regulation and empathy can negatively impact individuals with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), it is clear that appropriate interventions can lead to significant improvements in these individuals' issues. Such interventions have the potential to bring about meaningful changes in the rehabilitation of children and adolescents with ODD.
Research Question
The research question to be investigated in the present study is as follows: "Does an intervention that focuses on emotion recognition have an impact on the emotional self-regulation and empathy skills of students diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)?"

Literature Review

In a study conducted by Jiang et al. (2016), it was found that children diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) have deficits in cognitive reappraisal, rumination, expressive suppression, and disclosure of negative emotions. The research conducted by Pijper et al. (2018) also revealed that boys with ODD, who exhibit poor emotional control, were found to have selective impairments in responses related to empathy. On the other hand, Acland et al. (2021) found that children with ODD who have poor emotion recognition skills exhibit higher rates of overt aggression. Additionally, Staff et al. (2022) discovered that a lack of facial emotion recognition in school-age children is associated with emotional and social problems and may limit the scope of their social interactions and even participation in social activities.

Methodology

The method of research used was a semi-experimental design with a pre-test, a subsequent test, and a follow-up phase, employing a control group. The target population of the current study comprised all children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder who sought counseling services in Mashhad during the academic year 2024. Out of this group, 30 participants were chosen through a convenience sampling method, and then subsequently 15 individuals were randomly assigned to the experimental group and another 15 individuals to the control group.

Results

The findings of this study revealed that the experimental group demonstrated significant improvements in emotional self-regulation and empathy skills in the subsequent test and follow-up phase when compared to the control group, whose scores remained relatively unchanged across all three phases. To analyze the data, the analysis of variance test with repeated measurements was adopted. The basic assumptions necessary for the validity of this test were confirmed. The analysis of the results showed that the interaction effect between stages and groups was significant for both self-regulation and empathy. The Bonferroni test confirmed significant differences between the experimental and control groups in both the pre-test and subsequent test phases, as well as in the pre-test and follow-up phases. However, there was no significant difference observed between the subsequent test phase and the follow-up phase, suggesting that the impact of the intervention remained stable over time.
 
Table 1. Variance analysis with repeated measures to investigate the effects of within and between groups for research variables




Component

 

Sum of Squares


DF


Mean Square


F


Sig.


Eta




Self-regulation


Factor


74.467


2


38.233


27.481


0.001


0.495




Factor*Group


69.622


2


34.811


25.021


0.001


0.472




Group


106.711


1


106.711


938.36


0.001


0.569




Empathy


Factor


57.267


1.305


43.898


10.197


0.001


0.267




Factor*Group


203.489


1.305


155.985


36.235


0.001


0.564




Group


266.944


1


266.944


7.201


0.012


0.205





Discussion

The findings demonstrated that the emotion recognition intervention was effective in improving the emotional self-regulation skills of students diagnosed with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). This effect can be explained by the fact that one of the objectives of the emotion recognition intervention program is to concentrate on the underlying processes and unpleasant thoughts and feelings by correctly identifying and expressing internal emotional experiences, thereby helping individuals to tolerate their emotions. This intervention assists in helping individuals identify and label their emotions, associate them with specific needs and actions, and ultimately, regulate their emotional responses in order to activate healthy emotions through relabeling.
The positive impact of the emotion recognition intervention on the empathy skills of students with ODD can be attributed to the fact that a person's awareness and expression of emotions directly affect their ability to respond appropriately to both their own and others' negative emotions. The more proficient an individual is at recognizing, accepting, and employing appropriate strategies to manage their emotions, the better equipped they are to provide a suitable response in situations involving negative emotions and help themselves and others regulate their emotional state.

Conclusion

The findings of this research demonstrate that the emotion recognition intervention is a successful, cost-effective, and practical method for improving the emotional self-regulation and empathy skills of children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). As such, it is recommended that relevant organizations and centers consider implementing this program as a means to promote emotional empowerment and enhance the empathy levels of children with ODD.
Acknowledgments
The researchers would like to express their profound gratitude to all the participants who willingly took part in this study and all those who assisted in its execution. The research team is genuinely appreciative of their contribution and cooperation.