Psychology of Exceptional Individuals

Abstract Aim of the present study was to adapt play and activities based on the Totally Physical Response (TPR) method and compare its effectiveness with the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) method on the language skills (comprehensive and expressive) of students with autism. The present study method was a quasi-experimental type with a per-test-post-test design and a two-month follow-up with the control group. The statistical sample was 45 students aged 7 to 12 with autism in Qom in the academic year 2024-2025, who were selected based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria and were randomly assigned to three groups (two experimental groups and one control group) with 15 students in each group. The Test of Language Development (TOLD:P:3) by Hammill & Newcomer (1997) was used to measure language skills. The first experimental group underwent 12 sessions of the picture exchange communication system method and the second experimental group underwent 22 sessions of play and activities based on the totally physical response method, and the control group did not receive any intervention. The collected data were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance. The results showed that play and activities based on the totally physical response method and the picture exchange communication system method had positive effects on the language skills (comprehensive and expressive) of students with autism (P < 0.05). These methods improved the language skills of students with autism. Therefore, both methods are effective and can be considered by therapists, psychologists, teachers, and mothers of children with autism.

Abstract The significant prevalence of internalizing behavioral problems among students and their detrimental consequences on emotions and cognitive functions highlight the need for innovative interventions to improve emotional regulation and cognitive processes. The present study aimed to determine the effectiveness of intervention based on Aesthetics on anxiety and metamemory in students with internalizing behavioral problems. The intervention was designed based on a thematic analysis of authentic texts in aesthetics, and its content validity was confirmed using Lawshe's (1975) method and the Content Validity Index (CVI). A quasi-experimental design with a pretest-posttest and control group was employed. The statistical population included female fourth- and fifth-grade elementary students in Isfahan during the 2024-2025 academic year, from whom 30 students were selected through purposive sampling using the Rutter Children's Behavior Questionnaire—Teacher Form (Rutter, 1967) and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (15 participants each). Research instruments included the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (Spence, 1997) and the Multifactorial Memory Questionnaire (Troyer & Rich, 2002), completed before and after the intervention. The experimental group received an aesthetics-based intervention consisting of eight 60-minute sessions over two months. Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance with SPSS. The findings indicated that the intervention significantly reduced anxiety in the experimental group compared to the control group (P < 0.05), but had no significant effect on metamemory (P > 0.05). This finding confirms the emotion regulation function of aesthetics and highlights the necessity of integrating it with direct instruction in metacognitive strategies for improving higher-order cognitive functions.

Abstract ABSTRACT
Given the increasing prevalence of emotional-behavioral problems in children and the challenges that mothers of these children face, helping mothers control the anxiety caused by coping with parenting challenges is becoming important. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of the paradoxical time table on mothers' anxiety and worry, and daughters' internalized problems. This study was a quasi-experimental study with pretest, posttest, and follow-up phases with a control group. The statistical population was daughters (age 7-9) with internalizing problems in Isfahan in 1404 and their mothers. By a purposeful sampling method, 40 people from this population were selected as a sample, and 20 people were randomly assigned to the experimental group, and 20 people were randomly assigned to the control group. Mothers in the experimental group participated in six 60-minute sessions of the paradoxical time table, and the control group did not receive any intervention. Both groups completed the research instruments including: the Beck Anxiety Scale, Pennsylvania Anxiety Questionnaire, and Achenbach Behavioral Disorders Inventory (2001), before and after the intervention. The data were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of covariance. The findings showed that the values of both variables in the experimental groups in the post-test and follow-up stage were significantly different from the pretest stage (significance level less than 0.05). Therefore, this intervention had a positive and significant effect on (maternal anxiety (F = 420.587, P = 0.0001), (maternal worry (F = 231.057, P = 0.0001), and daughters' internalized problems (F = 288.629, P = 0.0001). Therefore, the paradoxical timetable is effective on maternal anxiety and worry, and daughters' internalized problems. Given the importance of maternal function in relation to children, providing education and therapeutic interventions to mothers in order to reduce mothers' negative emotions and control children's internalized problems can be effective.
Keywords: Paradoxical time table, maternal anxiety, maternal worry, internalized problems
Cite this Article: Ghamarani, A. (2025). The Effectiveness of Paradoxical Time Table on Mothers' Anxiety and Worry, and Daughters' Internalized Problems. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 143-176. https://doi.org/10.22054/jpe.2026.88011.2856
© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Publisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
 
 
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Emotional and behavioral problems in children are considered one of the most important issues and problems in child psychology. Childhood is a very important period of a person's life because childhood experiences predict the mental health of individuals in adulthood (Lewis & McKelvey, 2025). One of the most common psychological problems in children is emotional and behavioral problems (Christopher et al., 2023). Research by Chougule et al. (2023) estimated the incidence of these disorders in adolescents to be about 13.7% to 50%. Racine et al. (2021) believe that the prevalence of internalized behavioral problems in the world has increased in recent years and have stated that the global prevalence of anxiety and depression in children is 20.5% and 25.2%, respectively. Internalized problems in children have a negative impact on the child's personal performance and prevent children from performing in line with their abilities (Dostani and Ghamarani, 2021). Therefore, internalized problems in children are debilitating problems for children. The family, as a fundamental social structure and a stable psychosocial environment for children, plays an important role in shaping their emotions and behavior (Li et al., 2025). Among all family members, the importance of the mother's role in children's mental health is an important issue that should not be ignored. Mother's mental health plays an important role in preventing children from developing behavioral problems (Shiralinia et al., 2019). By disrupting early mother-child relationships, maternal anxiety can cause emotional disorders, low levels of mental vitality, and psychological insecurity in children (Karimabadi, 2014). In general, the quality of maternal care for children is effective in preventing children's internalized behavioral problems (Shaabani and NematTavosi, 2014). Therefore, providing training and interventions that reduce mothers' negative emotions and feelings can also be effective in reducing children's behavioral problems (Li et al., 2025). Despite the existence of effective interventions for anxiety disorders, the recurrence of symptoms in the long term is one of the challenges that people with anxiety disorders face (Krijnen et al., 2022). Paradox therapy has shown its effectiveness in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Paradoxical timetable therapy (PTC) consists of two main techniques, namely paradox and time table. Given that this treatment method has shown its effectiveness in the treatment of psychological disorders, especially anxiety disorders, and problems such as recurrence of symptoms, or the persistence of symptoms after treatment, do not exist in this type of treatment. Accordingly, in the present study, an intervention was designed to treat mothers' anxiety and worry and daughters' internalized problems using paradoxical timetable therapy.
Research Questions

Does the paradoxical timetable affect mothers' anxiety and worry?
Does the paradoxical timetable affect girls' internalized problems?

Literature Review
Pardes et al. (2024) believe that exposure approaches are effective methods for the permanent treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression. One of the newest methods of exposure therapy is the Time Table + Paradox = PTC therapy, which is called paradox therapy for short. Paradox therapy has shown its effectiveness in the treatment of anxiety disorders such as death anxiety (Mardani et al., 2025), post-traumatic stress disorder (Asadiov et al., 2024), panic disorder (Najafi et al., 2024), body dysmorphic disorder in women (Mahboubi et al., 2024), social anxiety disorder (Beshart, 1398), illness anxiety (Beshart, 2019), obsessive-compulsive disorder (Ahmadi et al., 2020; Beshart, 2019), and in emotion regulation and perceived rejection (Ebrahimpour, 2024). The review goes under these subheadings.
Methodology
This research is an applied research and in terms of statistical method, it is a quantitative research of semi-experimental type with a pre-test-post-test design with a waiting list. The statistical population of the research was children with internalizing behavioral problems and their mothers were in Isfahan in 1404. Sampling was carried out purposively and students aged 7 to 9 years who had been referred to this center based on a psychiatric interview for internalizing behavioral problems and who met the inclusion criteria for the study were contacted through a counseling center in Isfahan. 30 students whose scores on the Achenbach Internalizing Behavior Problems Questionnaire were two standard deviations above the mean and who were willing to cooperate with their mothers were randomly assigned to two experimental groups and a waiting list, and the mothers in the experimental group received paradoxical timetable therapy. The inclusion criteria for the study included 1. having a child aged 7 to 9 years, 2. having a minimum education level of a high school diploma for mothers, 3. having a mother aged 30 to 40 years, 4. having a written consent form signed by the mother for the children to participate in the study, and 5. not being a single parent in the family (due to divorce or death of the spouse). The exclusion criteria also included 1. not being continuously present in the research project (absent more than two sessions), 2. using psychological services simultaneously, 3. receiving another psychiatric diagnosis within the past three years. The research instruments included the Anxiety and Worry Questionnaire for Mothers, and the Achenbach Behavioral Disorders Inventory (ASEBA).
Results
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of maternal anxiety, maternal worry and internalized problems in two groups




Variables

 
 

Experimental


Control




Test


N


M ± SD


M ± SD




maternal anxiety


Pre test


20


17.10 ± 2.22


17.85 ± 2.18




Post test


20


11.55 ± 2.08


18.15 ± 2.30




Follow up


20


12.65 ± 2.05


18.50 ± 2.16




maternal worry


Pre test


20


30.65 ± 3.86


30.95 ± 3.47




Post test


20


22.65 ± 3.78


32.15 ± 2.94




Follow up


20


21.30 ± 3.71


31.25 ± 3.40




internalized problems


Pre test


20


20.05 ± 1.90


19.65± 2.13




Post test


20


9.40 ± 1.18


20.05 ± 2.37




Follow up


20


10.35 ± 0.93


20.35 ± 2.00




Table 2. Repeated Measures ANOVA to Examine Within- and Between-Group Effects




variable


Source of Variation


Sum of Squares


df


Mean Square


F


P


Eta Squared




Anxiety


Time (Within-subject)


200.72


1


200.72


233.498


0.0001


0.860



 

Time × Group


130.05


1


130.05


420.587


0.0001


0.917



 

Group (Between-subject)


580.80


1


580.80


519.42


0.0001


0.528




Worry


Time (Within-subject)


231.20


1


231.20


126.230


0.0001


0.769



 

Time × Group


432.20


1


432.20


231.057


0.0001


0.859



 

Group (Between-subject)


1300.208


1


1300.208


37.062


0.0001


0.494




Internalizing Problems


Time (Within-subject)


405.00


1


405.00


216.152


0.0001


0.850



 

Time × Group


540.80


1


540.80


288.629


0.0001


0.884



 

Group (Between-subject)


1366.875


1


1366.875


227.099


0.0001


0.857




Discussion
The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effectiveness of the paradoxical time table on mothers' anxiety and worry, and children's internalized problems. The results of the study provided the necessary theoretical support for the paradoxical time table, based on which the paradoxical time table can reduce symptoms of anxiety and worry in mothers and also control children's internalized problems. The first finding of the study showed that the paradoxical timetable is effective in reducing mothers' anxiety and worry. In explaining this finding, the mechanisms of the paradoxical timetable's effectiveness can be mentioned. The artificialization of anxiety symptoms, and the experience of anxiety states prescribed by the therapist, with the help of the experience of reconstructing events, causes the person to have less anxiety about the subject of anxiety, despite the activation of worry, the principle of delayed onset, which causes the person to have less anxiety about the subject of anxiety. Another finding of the study showed that the paradoxical timetable is effective in reducing children's internalized problems. In explaining this finding, it can be said that mothers' worries and stresses are the factors that weaken the mother-child relationship, and as a result, create and perpetuate children's internalized problems (He et al., 2023). Given that in the present study, presenting a paradoxical timetable to mothers reduced their anxiety and worry, and this led to an improvement in the quality of mothers' relationships with their children (Shiralinia et al., 2019), ultimately, a reduction in internalized problems in children was expected.
 
 
Ethical Considerations
Adherence to Research Ethics Principles
This study has received the ethics code IR.UI.REC.1403.106 from the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan. The authors have observed all ethical principles in conducting and publishing this scientific research, and this is confirmed by all of them.
Author Contributions
First Author: Preparation of samples, conducting experiments and data collection, performing calculations, statistical analysis of data, analysis and interpretation of information and results, drafting the original manuscript, verification and validation of results, revision, review, and finalization of the manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
Funding
This article was conducted independently by the authors without any financial support.
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to all mothers and children who participated in this research.
 

Abstract Developmental delays in brain growth significantly limit the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral abilities of individuals with intellectual disabilities. In recent years, Polyvagal Theory has emerged as a robust framework for addressing various psychological challenges. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of Polyvagal Theory-based therapy on social skills and behavioral problems in students with developmental intellectual disabilities. This quasi-experimental research employed a pre-test, post-test design with a control group. A convenience sampling method was used to select 30 students with developmental intellectual disabilities, who were then assigned to either the experimental or control group. The experimental group underwent 10 sessions of 90-minute interventions (two sessions per week). The research tools included the Social Skills Rating Scale (SSRS) by Gresham and Elliott (1990) to assess social skills and behavioral problems. Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS software. The results indicated that the Polyvagal Theory-based intervention package significantly improved social skills (F = 19.94, p = 0.001) and reduced behavioral problems (F = 16.43, p = 0.001) at a significance level of 0.05. According to the findings of this study, Polyvagal Theory-based therapy had a significant impact on enhancing social skills and reducing behavioral problems in students with developmental intellectual disabilities. These findings offer positive outcomes for children with special needs.

Abstract Post traumatic growth is a positive psychological change that may help traumatized parents recover. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to develop a sublime suffering model in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. This study was conducted in 2024 in the city of Isfahan using a qualitative method and a grounded theory approach. The sample group reached theoretical saturation by selecting 27 parents with post traumatic growth (with the participants acknowledging the experience of growth and obtaining a score two standard deviations higher than the average in the post-traumatic growth test by Tedeschi & Calhoun (1996) by the participants). Sampling method was purposeful and semi-structured interview method was used to collect data. Data analysis was done with the systematic method of Strauss and Corbin (2008) in three stages of open, central and selective coding, and the findings included 140 open codes, 30 central codes and 5 selective codes. Based on the results of the research, a data-based model was developed, including causal factors, underlying factors, intervening factors, strategies, and consequences. Based on the results, it can be said that this model can open the way for psychologists and counselors to increase the post-traumatic growth capacity of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder.

Abstract The increasing incidence of emotional and behavioral disorders in children and the challenges associated with them and their families stress the need to address the quality of family interactions, particularly those between mothers and their children. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of mother-child interaction training, which draws upon the principles of the Precede model, on the meta-emotional philosophy of mothers and their children's emotional-behavioral problems. This research project was designed as a semi-experimental study adopting a pre-test and post-test format with a control group. The participants in this study consisted of mothers of children with emotional-behavioral disorders, and the study sample was selected from a total population of 30 individuals. Fifteen participants were randomly assigned to the experimental group, while 15 others were assigned to the control group. For the experimental group, participants attended 6 sessions of mother-child interaction training based on the Precede model, while the control group received no intervention. Both groups were assessed using the following research instruments: Evelyne kehe’s (2006) meta-emotional philosophy questionnaire and Achenbach's (1992) child behavior checklist-parent form, which were administered both prior to and following the intervention. Data analysis in the study was performed using two methods: univariate and multivariate (multivariate) ANCOVA tests executed in the SPSS software (version 26.00). The results revealed a significant difference in both variable values in the experimental and control groups, with a significance level of less than 0.05. The findings suggest that this intervention had a positive and significant impact in improving both metam-emotion philosophy (F = 201.568, P = 0.0001) and emotional-behavioral problems (F = 36.588, P = 0.0001). These effects were significant at the α = 0.05 significance level. The findings demonstrate that mother-child interaction training based on the Precede model was effective in significantly improving mothers’ meta-emotional philosophies and reducing emotional-behavioral problems in adolescents aged 11-14 years. Considering the pivotal role of the mother's role in their children, it is recommended that providing educational interventions to mothers, to strengthen their relationship with their children, would be effective in reducing and managing children's emotional-behavioral problems. Keywords: Mother-Child Interaction; Precede Model; Meta-Emotion Philosophy; Emotional Behavioral Problems.       Extended Abstract Introduction The presence of emotional and behavioral problems among children is a significant issue within the field of clinical psychology and the psychology of children with special needs. Notably, a considerable number of children in the pre-primary school age bracket are affected by such problems. The importance of this issue is further magnified due to the high number of students with mental health problems who are also grappling with emotional and behavioral challenges. According to Zupard et al. (2023), family factors are significant contributors to children's behavioral problems. Specifically, supportive maternal interactions are associated with positive social and emotional outcomes, while controlling interactions predict negative outcomes for children. Bell (2020) supports this notion, asserting that supportive maternal interactions can foster healthy socio-emotional development in children. Effectively, effective mother-child communication contributes to several beneficial outcomes for children, including improved social skills (Rezapour, Kohestani, & Erfan, 1401), enhanced self-regulation and emotional-social consequences (Bell, 2020), and ultimately, enhanced psychological and social abilities (Thompson, 2008). Mother-child interaction constitutes an emotional and psychological bond between the two, and it hinges on the child's past experience of the dynamics of their relationship with the mother (Lindsey, 2021). Research indicates that positive interactions between mothers and children help reduce instances of behavioral problems (Hashemi & eini, 1400). Moreover, high-quality interactions exhibit an inverse correlation with both externalized and internalized behavioral issues (Dubois et al., 2015). Overall, enhancing the quality of mother-child interaction emerges as a vital factor in minimizing or ameliorating the challenges associated with children experiencing emotional-behavioral issues. Conversely, the concept of meta-emotional philosophy is intricately linked to the relationship between mother and child. According to Nunes et al. (2022), strong meta-emotion is observed in mothers who foster positive relationships with their children, with a clear indication that children of mothers exhibiting high levels of meta emotion philosophy exhibit a secure attachment to their mothers (Chen et al., 2012). In light of this connection, enhancing the quality of mother-child interaction can effectively institutionalize meta-emotional strategies within the parent-child relationship. The notion of meta-emotion signifies second-order emotions—that is, emotions experienced in relation to one's own emotions or those of others (Miceli & Castelfrani, 2019). Similarly, the meta-emotional philosophy of parents pertains to their emotional response to their child's emotions. Children struggling with emotional and behavioral disorders encounter numerous challenges related to emotion regulation and control of negative emotions (Najati-Far et al., 2019). Studies conducted in recent years indicate that greater emotional development in mothers is associated with reduced levels of both internalized and externalized problems in children. Furthermore, research suggests that mothers' emotional dysfunction can serve as a predictor for increased instances of internalized and externalized issues (He, et al., 2020). Given the heightened prevalence of emotional and behavioral problems among these mothers, it is plausible that their meta-emotional philosophies are relatively weak. Consequently, it becomes imperative to implement a program that bolsters the meta-emotional philosophy in parents whose children are grappling with emotional and behavioral issues. A thorough review of the effectiveness of interventions based on mother-child interaction in children grappling with emotional-behavioral issues reveals that these difficulties tend to resurface following treatment (Levi et al., 2021) and can persist into adulthood (Fan et. al., 2024). Supporting this claim, research has found correlations between elevated levels of maltreatment in childhood and interpersonal issues in adulthood (Mayer et al., 2019). The research conducted by Arslan et al. (2020) established a correlation between the presence of externalized behavioral problems in children and the emergence of maladaptive behaviors during adulthood. Furthermore, it was observed that these problems can persist until adolescence and even extend into adulthood (Agnafors, 2021). This prolonged persistence of behavioral problems often proves challenging to treat effectively, thereby increasing the risk of developing mental health issues during adulthood. In recent years, methods that aim to promote health-related desirable behaviors and have demonstrated lasting effects have become increasingly popular, with interventions rooted in the Precede model being among them. The Precede model, developed by Green et al. in 1974, serves as an effective theoretical framework for identifying health and health education needs, comprising two components: educational diagnosis (precede) and ecological diagnosis (proceed). The Precede model's intervention focuses on altering the context of the family by strengthening positive factors, thereby reinforcing a healthy mother-child interaction as a social norm within this small society. Furthermore, by introducing and highlighting the support resources available to mothers, the intervention can have a more profound impact and leave a lasting impression on these parents. Based on the characteristics of the intervention rooted in the Precede model, which encompasses stages and components, it is anticipated that mothers of children with emotional-behavioral issues will achieve skills that are persistent and become an integrated part of their daily lives through this intervention. This transformation presents a significant challenge and appears unattainable for these mothers, as highlighted by Rubino et al. (2023). Inspired by the aforementioned research findings, the researchers of this study devised an intervention based on the Precede model to achieve impactful and enduring outcomes in reducing the severity of emotional-behavioral problems. The meticulous research conducted by the research team in both local and international sources has highlighted a significant research gap concerning interventions grounded in the Precede model within the psychological field when compared to studies in the medical and health domains. In light of this gap, a notable absence of interventions targeting mother-child interaction, particularly for children grappling with emotional-behavioral challenges, becomes particularly manifest. The necessity to improve the quality of mother-child interaction in children grappling with emotional-behavioral challenges is unequivocally recognized, especially given the potential long-term impact of the asked model in cultivating positive interactions between mothers and their children. Consequently, the central focus of this research endeavor is to investigate the effectiveness of an educational intervention grounded in the Precede model on both mothers' meta-emotional philosophies and children's emotional-behavioral issues. Research Questions This study pursues the following research questions: Is mother-child interaction training based on the Precede model effective on the meta-emotional philosophy of mothers? Is the teaching of mother-child interaction based on the Precede model effective on children's emotional-behavioral problems? Literature Review Recent studies indicate that positive mother-child interactions can reduce children's behavioral problems (Hashemi and eini, 1400). Consistent findings indicate that interventions grounded in the Precede model have demonstrated efficacy in addressing diverse objectives, including: (1) enhancing psychological well-being in women (Meshki et al., 2022), (2) fostering self-care practices among high blood pressure patients (a study by Abadi et al., 2019), (3) fostering the mental health of middle-aged women (Shiani Jalili, 2014), and (4) promoting healthy lifestyles for hypertensive patients (Hosseini et al., 2013). Research conducted both within and outside of Iran reveals a significant research gap concerning the employment of interventions based on the Precede model in the field of psychology compared to research conducted in the medicine and health domains. This research gap is particularly evident given the absence of any intervention focusing specifically on mother-child interaction with children experiencing emotional-behavioral difficulties. Methodology This research project was conducted as a semi-experimental study, comprised of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments. The study population included all mothers with children displaying external behavioral issues enrolled in regular schools in Isfahan during the academic year 2019-2020. Diagnosing children's behavioral problems utilized the Achenbach Behavior Problems Questionnaire. For the purpose of selecting the sample, a convenience and purposive sampling method was employed. Firstly, the mothers of students with identified emotional and behavioral difficulties were invited to participate in the research, from which a sample of 30 individuals who met the inclusion criteria were chosen. Data collection commenced with the assessment of dependent variables in the pre-test phase. Following this, an intervention based on the Precede model was executed in six, 60-minute sessions (one session per week) for the experimental group. Subsequently, in the follow-up phase, after the intervention's conclusion, both the experimental and control groups were assessed on dependent variables. The difference between pre-test and follow-up scores for the experimental and control groups was then statistically analyzed to establish the effect of the independent variable. Results The utilization of tables and figures in documents serves a principal purpose, which is to augment the readers' comprehension of the information contained within the document. It is both lucid and efficient to communicate information through tables and figures, as this approach enhances understanding. As a general rule, apply a border at the top and bottom of the table, beneath the column headings, above column spanners, and to segregate a row containing totals or other summary information from other rows in the table. Restrict the usage of borders or lines in a table, employing them only when necessary to enhance clarity. Avoid utilizing vertical borders to separate data, and refrain from incorporating borders around every cell in a table. Space between columns and rows, as well as precise alignment, enhances clarity in table elements. Also, add a single blank, double-spaced line between the table and any preceding text for enhanced visual presentation. Furthermore, ensure that the font size for table content is set to 10 Times New Roman, and position tables and figures left-aligned. Table 1. Descriptive statistics of meta emotional philosophy and emotional behavioral problems control experimental   standard deviation Mean standard deviation Mean N tese   42/7 63/25 04/9 47/23 15 Pre test Sufficiency and competence 35/7 47/26 85/7 20/35 15 Post test   76/13 27/48 87/13 46/45 15 Pre test Emotional coaching 04/14 66/48 79/14 60/65 15 Post test   34/19 20/74 79/21 93/68 15 Pre test Meta emotional philsophy 25/19 13/75 10/21 108 15 Post test   91/13 60/37 16/13 20/27 15 Pre test Internlaized problems 35/14 27/38 69/10 80/20 15 Post test   55/13 06/41 52/21 87/34 15 Pre test externlaized problems 04/15 53/42 38/16 40/26 15 Post test   06/16 66/78 85/15 06/62 15 Pre test Behavioral problems 42/17 80/80 60/12 20/47 15 Post test   Table 2. results of univariate analysis of covariance mean post-test scores on meta-emotional philosophy and behavioral problems Test power Effect size Sig F Mean of square df Sum of square Stage   000/1 919/0 0001/0 566/306 099/10503 1 099/10503 Pre test Post test Meta emotional philsophy 000/1 882/0 0001/0 568/201 824/6905 1 824/6905 Group           261/34 27 034/925 Error             30 000/248513 Total   000/1 733/0 0001/0 229/74 820/4747 1 820/4747 Pre test Pott test Behavioral problem 000/1 575/0 0001/0 588/36 265/2340 1 265/2340 Group             27 980/1726 Error             30 000/137822 Total   Discussion In line with previous research findings showing a significant relationship between parenting styles and meta-emotional philosophy (Basaknejad, Younesi, & Janadele, 2018), as well as the inclusion of parenting style education within the Precede model-based intervention, these findings were anticipated. Additionally, during the training sessions based on the Precede model, the concept of "mindful parenting" was introduced to the mothers. Given the proven effectiveness of mindful parenting in improving "mothers' emotion regulation" (Badiei et al., 2020), it is logical that mothers, upon completing the training, would have improved their capability to appropriately manage their children's emotions. Studies indicate that children with emotional and behavioral issues struggle with recognizing their inner feelings, as well as understanding their emotional experiences (Persan & Jandari, 2018). Moreover, addressing these challenges relies heavily on enhancing mothers' meta-emotional philosophy, which subsequently strengthens their emotion regulation skills. Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of this method in improving externalized behavioral issues among kids (Nejatifar, Abedi & Ghamrani, 2019). Conclusion The research findings indicate that mother-child interaction training grounded in the Precede model significantly elevates mothers' meta-emotional philosophy and concurrently reduces their children's emotional and behavioral issues. Acknowledgments We express our profound gratitude to all the mothers who actively participated in our intervention sessions. We also extend our sincere appreciation to all individuals who contributed to the successful completion of this research venture.

Abstract Abstract Children’s behavioral problems influence their families considerably. Thus, the present study evaluates the effectiveness of the spillover intervention on the emotional processing and self-concealment of the mothers of children with externalized behavioral problems in Isfahan. The study is quasi-experimental with pretest, posttest, and follow-up phases. Thirty mothers of children with externalized behavioral problems were selected by purposeful and convenience sampling and assigned into two experimental and control groups. The experimental group underwent the spillover intervention in 8 90-minute sessions, and the control group received no treatment. The research instruments included Achenbach’s (2001) Child Behavior Checklist-Parent Form (for screening the sample group), Larsen and Chastain’s (1990) Self-Concealment Scale (SCS), and Baker’s (2010) Emotional Information Processing Questionnaire. The data were analyzed by univariate and multivariate ANCOVA tests run in the SPSS 26 software. The results revealed that spillover training positively and significantly impacted self-concealment (F = 12/902; P = 0/001) and emotional processing (F = 33/017; P = 0/001) at the significance level of 0/05 (α = 0/05). Besides, the results were constant in the follow-up phase (α = 0/05). According to the findings, spillover training has a significant effect on the self-concealment and emotional processing of mothers of children with externalized behavioral problems. Considering mothers are the main pillars in training their children, this outcome has some educational and psychological implications for the mothers of children with externalized behavioral problems. Keywords: Spillover, Self-Concealment, Emotional Processing, Externalized Behavioral Problems.       Extended Abstract Introduction Behavioral problems arise in situations where emotional and behavioral responses differ from cultural, age, and ethnic norms in school, negatively impacting academic performance, self-care, social relationships, personal adaptation, and adaptation in the workplace (Ghamarani and Lotfi, 2018). One type of behavioral problem is externalizing problems, which include behaviors that are externally observable and directed outside the child's existence, and are somewhat referred to as disruptive behavior (defiance, hyperactivity, inattention, and aggression) (Achenbach and Rescorla, 2001). The spillover theory, based on the family systems perspective, assumes that all family members are interdependent, and as a result, their experiences, emotions, values, and behaviors influence the interactions of other family members in a domain (Jensen et al., 2021). One of the influential factors in the type of response of parents with problematic children is emotions, which their involvement is evident in a wide range of psychological disorders such as anxiety disorders and depression (Altiere & von Kluge, 2009). Emotional processing using emotional processing strategies can be effective in increasing emotional skills to reduce emotional and psychological disturbances (Mohammadi Siyah Kamari et al., 2017). It seems that mothers with children with behavioral problems are weak in emotional processing and achieve lower grades. Anger, aggression, bullying, violence, and illegal and rule-breaking behaviors are manifestations of externalizing behavioral problems and are considered unacceptable by society, so mothers of this group of children are forced to use self-concealment mechanisms. According to the studies conducted, the family spillover approach has the potential to be taught to mothers with children with behavioral problems. Therefore, the issue of the present research was to evaluate the effectiveness of the spillover intervention on emotional processing and self-concealment of mothers with children with externalizing behavioral problems. Research Questions Is the spillover intervention effective in the emotional processing of mothers with children with externalizing behavioral problems? Is the spillover intervention effective in the self-concealment of mothers with children with externalizing behavioral problems? Literature Review Based on previous studies, the negative spillover of marital conflicts is associated with strictness, incompatibility, relationship tension, and unhealthy parenting (Wormuth, Cummings, & Davies, 2020). Therefore, in studies related to family spillover, mothers have been the focus of researchers; self-efficacy and parenting style (Rahimi, Akrami, & Ghamarani, 2021), self-determination and parental management (Mansournia, Malekpour, & Ghamarani, 2021) are examples of these studies. Methodology This research was conducted as a semi-experimental study, including pre-test, post-test, and follow-up. The statistical population in this study included all mothers with children with external behavioral problems studying in regular schools in Isfahan during the academic year 2021-2020. The diagnostic criterion for children's behavioral problems was the Achenbach Behavior Problems Questionnaire. Convenience and purposive sampling methods were used to select the sample from schools in District 3 of Isfahan. After identifying students with external behavioral problems, their mothers were invited to participate in the research, and 30 of them who met the inclusion criteria were selected as the sample. In the pre-test phase, dependent variables were evaluated. Then, the spillover intervention was implemented in the experimental group in 8 sessions of 90 minutes (two sessions per week) (Torkashvand & Ghamarani, in press). Then, in the post-test and follow-up phase, one month after the end of the intervention, both the experimental and control groups were evaluated in terms of dependent variables. In the next phase, the difference between the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up scores of the experimental and control groups was statistically tested to determine the effect of the independent variable.     Results Table 1. Descriptive statistics of self-concealment and emotional processing in two groups Variables     Experimental Control Test N M ± SD M ± SD self-concealment Pre‑test 15 30.33±9.48 31.86±7.60 Post‑test 15 19.66±5.12 31.06±6.69 Follow-up 15 19.06±3.39 32.86±5.30 emotional suppression Pre‑test 15 15.86±3.20 15.73±3.23 Post‑test 15 13.40±2.66 16.80±2.88 Follow-up 15 13.77±2.44 14.40±2.44 emotional processing signs Pre‑test 15 13±3.20 11±1.64 Post‑test 15 18.20±2.54 12.66±2.28 Follow-up 15 15.40±3.26 12.93±1.62 emotional avoidance Pre‑test 15 13.26±2.60 11.86±2.32 Post‑test 15 8.73±1.22 11.33±1.83 Follow-up 15 8.93±1.38 12.06±2.01 emotional control Pre‑test 15 12.26±2.96 11.46±2.13 Post‑test 15 17.86±3.13 12.27±1.75 Follow-up 15 17.66±2.22 12.60±1.76 Unpleasant emotional experiences Pre‑test 15 13.33±2.16 12.60±2.22 Post‑test 15 7.26±2.88 12.66±2.58 Follow-up 15 30.06±4.87 7.93±2.05 emotional processing Pre‑test 15 64.93±11.42 58.40±6.85 Post‑test 15 91.40±11.06 61.40±4.54 Follow-up 15 85.06±10.27 62.53±5.34 Table 2.Results of one-way analysis of variance on the mean scores of post-test and follow-up on maternal self-concealment with pre-test control stage Sum of square df Mean square F Sig. Effect Size Test power Post‑test Pre‑test 17569.729 1 17569.729 371.888 0.001 0.810 1.00 Group 3546.944 1 3546.944 75.076 0.001 0.463 1.00 error 4110/289 57 47.245         Total 85803.000 60           Follow- up Pre‑test 210.062 1 210.062 100.900 0.001 0.639 1.00 Group 881.771 1 881.771 70.173 0.001 0.722 1.00 error 331.279 57 12.566         Total 22140.000 60           Table 3.  Covariance analysis of post-test and follow-up mean scores of self-concealment and emotional processing Stage Variables Sum of square df Mean square F Sig. Effect Size Test power Post‑test emotional suppression 240.000 1 240.000 31.863 0.001 0.397 1.00 emotional processing signs 212.817 1 212.817 35.004 0.001 0.277 1.00 emotional avoidance 46.944 1 46.944 8.881 0.004 0.093 0.838 emotional control 328.711 1 328.711 45.166 0.001 0.342 1.00 Unpleasant emotional experiences 81.667 1 81.667 12.214 0.001 0.264 1.00 emotional processing 4507.331 1 4507.331 33.017 0.001 0.550 1.00 Follow- up emotional suppression 81.667 1 81.667 13.083 0.001 0.187 0.945 emotional processing signs 70.417 1 70.417 10.867 0.002 0.160 0.900 emotional avoidance 64.067 1 64.067 11.013 0.002 0.162 0.904 emotional control 160.067 1 160.067 24.802 0.001 0.303 0.998 Unpleasant emotional experiences 106.667 1 70.417 15.228 0.001 0.211 0.970 emotional processing 2593.338 1 2593.338 48.967 0.001 0.645 1.00 Discussion and Conclusion (Times New Roman 12 bold) The first finding of the research showed a significant difference in emotional processing between the experimental and control groups. In the intervention sessions, mothers were asked to describe their interactions with their children. Most mothers had difficulty in processing emotions in their interactions with their children, especially in dealing with negative emotions caused by their children's inappropriate behavior. Enrichment of family communication (spousal and parent-child relationships) and positive spillover caused mothers to process emotions more positively. Another finding of the research showed a significant decrease in self-concealment scores in the experimental group. In the intervention sessions, mothers were reminded of the role of empathy in family spillover to promote empathic spillover in the family. Since spouses spend a lot of time together, using empathic spillover techniques helps them become more aware of each other's emotional states, leading to more discussion about their problems and encouraging emotional expression, which ultimately reduces self-concealment. One of the research suggestions is to compare the effectiveness of other psychological interventions such as cognitive-behavioral interventions, mindfulness-based interventions, and compassion-based interventions with family spillover intervention to more accurately evaluate the direct effects of this new intervention.

Abstract The purpose of this research was to investigate the antecedents and consequences of executive functions in adolescents with conduct Disorder in the form of a causal model. The research method was descriptive research and correlation design. The statistical population of the research included first secondary school boys studying in Qom city in 2021. From this community, 451 people who were diagnosed with conduct disorder using the Children Symptom inventory (SCI-4) and were willing to cooperate were selected using Convenience Sampling. To collect data, the questionnaire of parenting style, executive functions and Callous–unemotional traits was used. Pearson's correlation coefficient and path analysis tests were used to analyze the data. The results of the correlation matrix showed that there was a significant correlation between the research variables at the level of P>0.01 and P>0.05. Further, the results of the path analysis indicated the significance of the mediating role of executive functions in the relationship between parenting methods and Callous–unemotional traits. In general, the executive functions and parenting methods are two of the main factors for investigating Callous–unemotional traits.

Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of parenting based on organizational skills and mindful parenting on parent-child relationships and symptoms of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. This was a quasi-experimental research with pretest, posttest and follow up. The study population consisted of all children aged 8-10 years with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Isfahan who were educated in Isfahan public schools in 2019-2020. In this study participated 45 male children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder that diagnosed on the basis of the Child Psychiatry and Fourth edition of Swanson-Nolan and Pelham Scale. In an experimental group, 11 sessions of parenting based on organizational skills and another experimental group 8 sessions of mindful parenting were conducted. The participants answered to Fourth edition of Swanson-Nolan and Pelham Scale(SNAP-IV) and parent-child relationships scale(CPRS) in three stages. Data were analyzed using repeated measures. Mindful parenting compared parenting based on organizational skills significant effect on parent-child relationships in the post-test and in the follow-up stage also remains(p≤05). Parenting based on organizational skills improved attention deficit and total attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in the post-test and the effects have been significant and the effect on follow-up stage also remains(p≤05). But parenting based on organizational skills did not have a significant effect on symptoms of hyperactivity/ impulsivity(P≥0.05). This study provides promising results in improving parent-child relationships and reducing the symptoms of children with attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder by educating mindful parenting and parenting based on organizational skills as an intervention.

Abstract The aim of this study is to develop a parenting program based on the experiences of mothers of children with specific learning disorder (SLD) and assess its effect on parenting stress and children's academic emotions. In the first phase, the "parenting program based on the experiences of mothers with children with specific learning disorder (SLD)" was developed. The second part of the study was semi-experimental pre-test, post-test, follow-up with a control group. Thirty mothers of children with specific learning disorder (SLD) were selected through convenience sampling and divided randomly into the experimental (15 subjects) and control (n = 15) groups. The research instruments were the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) and the Academic Emotions Questionnaire. The parenting program was presented during eight sessions (once a week), and each session lasted for 60 minutes. Data were analyzed by the repeated measure ANOVA and analyzed by the SPSS-23 software. The results showed that there was a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in terms of parenting stress and children's academic emotions in post-test and follow up (P <0.05) scores. According to the results of this study, it can be concluded that the parenting program based on the experiences of mothers of children with specific learning disorder (SLD) has an effect on parenting stress and children's academic emotions of children.

Abstract The present study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of ACT on the cognitive emotion regulation and intolerance of uncertainty in the students suffering from OCD. It was a quasi-experimental study with pretest, posttest, control group and two-month follow-up design. The statistical population of the study included the students with OCD in the city of Isfahan in 2017-18. 30 first high school students with OCD were selected through non-random purposive sampling and replaced into experimental and control groups (15 students with OCD in the experimental group and 15 students with OCD in the control group). The experimental group received ten seventy-five-minute ACT sessions during three months. The applied questionnaires in the study included Maudsley’s obsessiion inventory (Hajson and Rachman, 1980) and Cognitive Emotion Regulation questionnaire(Gross, John) and Intolerance of uncertainty questionnaire (Mcline, 1993). The data from the study were analyzed through repeated measurement ANOVA by SPSS23 statistical software. the results showed that ACT has significantly influenced the Cognitive Emotion Regulation and Intolerance of uncertainty in the students with OCD (p<0.001) in a way that this therapy was able to lead to the increase of Cognitive Emotion Regulation and Intolerance of uncertainty in the students with OCD. according to the findings of the present study it can be concluded that ACT employing cases such as mental techniques, observing the self as the background, cognitive defusion techniques, stipulating values, and committed action can be used as an efficient therapy to increase the Cognitive Emotion Regulation and Intolerance of uncertainty in the students

Abstract Intellectual and Developmental Disability is a disorder that affects individuals’ adaptive and intelligent performance in practical, social, and conceptual areas. The present study aimed to compare the effectiveness of parenting education based on the Double ABCX model and compassion-based parenting on the mother-child relationship and behavioral problems in children was an intelligence disabilities.
The present research employed an experimental research with pretest-posttest, and follow-up design. The subjects were screened based on inclusion criteria, then 45 mothers of children with intellectual disabilities were selected and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (each group contained15 subjects). Mothers participated in 10 sessions of the Double ABCX program intervention, and in 8 sessions of compassion-based parenting, while the control group did not receive any intervention. The research instruments included The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and Mother-Child Relationship Questionnaire, performed for all subjects in each of the three stages. Data analysis was conducted using repeated measures. Follow-up tests showed that parenting education based on Double ABCX model has a significant effect on mother-child relationship and behavioral problems in children with intellectual disabilities.
As the findings depicted, parenting education based on the Double ABCX model is an effective program for the parenting of mothers of children with intellectual disabilities

Abstract Abstract

Introduction: Physical and motor disabilities have been defined as a trauma that limits one or more of individual’s main life activities which these disabilities prevent effective demonstration of individual’s physical or mental abilities. Thus the goal of the current research is investigating the role of identity, basic psychological needs and demographic variables in predicting psychological well-being of students with physical and motor disabilities. This means that a sample statistical methods, including 200 students with physical and motor disabilities that were chosen using available sample method. The Aspects of Identity Questionnaire IV (Cheek, J. M. Smith, S.M. & Tropp, L. R. 2003), Psychological Well-being (Carol Ryff, 1980), and Basic Psychological Needs Scale (La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman, & Deci, 2000) were used for collecting the data. The data was analyzed by Pearson correlation and Regression multicollinearity tests.
Data analysis showed that identity elements, basic psychological needs and demographic variables could predict psychological well-being of students with physical and motor disabilities. (p<0/0001،p<0/0005).
Discussion: Finally, we can conclude that the identity elements, basic psychological needs and demographic variables are elements that affect psychological well-being of students with physical and motor disabilities.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of incredible years program on social skills in children with mild intellectual disability. This study was pre-test/post-test control group design. The Statistical Society of this study included all children with intellectual disability (ages 6-11) that studied at exceptional schools of Khomeynishahr city in 2016. The sample included 30 children with their parents that were selected by Simple Random Sampling from this society and then assigned in two groups of 15 people (experimental group and control group). The experimental group parents received the incredible years program (Webster-Stratton, 2011) in 12 sessions and one session in per week. The study data collected by Social skills rating system-SSRS (Gresham and Elliott, 1994). MANCOVA analysis was used to analysis of data. The results showed efficiency of incredible years program on social skills and Subscales (self-Control, Assertion and cooperation) is significant in α=0.05 level. Therefore incredible year’s program can be used to increase social skills in children with intellectual disability.

Abstract Abstract
The current research aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Renzulli’s Enrichment Triad Program on Creativity of sharp-witted primary school level students. . research method was Experimental with pretest - posttest and control group. The statistical universe of the current research consisted of all sharp-witted students of the city of Karaj in the educational year of 2015-2016. For this purpose, the number of 76 sharp-witted students was selected through multi stage cluster random sampling method and was randomly placed in two experimental and control groups (38 people in the experimental group and another 38 in the control group) and their mothers, too responded to the questions of Abedi’s Creativity. The experimental group , During the twelve two-hour sessions The Renzulli’s Enrichment Triad Program was administered on the experimental group but The control group not received training in this issue . The research Data were collected by Abedi’s Creativity Test and with analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) were analyzed .The findings showed that Renzulli’s Enrichment Triad Program has been effective in increasing female creativity. In general it can be concluded that Renzulli’s Enrichment Triad Program Can affect on children's creativity.

Abstract The purpose of this
study was to determine the effectiveness of couple communication patterns
training on the performance of families with ADHD children.60 parents whose
children were suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were
chosen randomly. Then, the samples wererandomly divided into two groups:
control group (30 participants) and experimental group (30 participants). The
experimental group received 7 treatment sessions. Both groups filled out the
Family Performance Questionnaire in thepretest and the posttest. The data were
analyzed by statistical methods (covariance analysis).The results showed that
the couple communication patterns training leaded to enhancement of family
performance and its subtitles such as, emotional involvement, role playing,
problem solving, emotional support, behavioral control, and the overall
performance (P<0.05). The present study showed that the couple communication
patterns training to parents could significantly enhance the performance of
families such as emotional involvement, role playing, problem solving,
emotional support, behavioral control, and the overall performance.

Abstract aa

Abstract The present research aims to study the effect of
employment status, marital status, education level, intensity of disability and
gender on the total rate of mental health as well as physical symptoms,
anxiety, social maladjustment, and depression in physically disabled persons in
Isfahan city. The research method was that of causal-comparative. The
statistical population included all disabled people in Isfahan, from among
which 100 subjects were randomly selected. The 28-item General Health
Questionnaire (GHQ-28) was used to assess the psychological status of the
participants. The results of MANOVA showed that employment status significantly
affected the total score of GHQ (P<0.01), physical symptoms (P<0.05), and
anxiety (P<0.05). Also, marital status significantly affected the total
score of GHQ (P<0.05) and depression (P.0.01). However, the education level,
intensity of disability, and gender had no significant effect on total score of
GHQ, physical symptoms, anxiety, social maladjustment, and depression variables.
The research findings suggest that physically disabled people
should be provided with the appropriate opportunities for marriage and
employment, so that their psychological status can be improved