Research Paper
Hamza Mirzai; Salar Faramarzi; Mojtaba Jahanifar; Amir Masnavi
Abstract
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of the educational package of the multimedia learning environment model on academic engagement and Academic incivility in students with specific learning disorders. This research was an experimental type with a pre-test-post-test ...
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Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the effectiveness of the educational package of the multimedia learning environment model on academic engagement and Academic incivility in students with specific learning disorders. This research was an experimental type with a pre-test-post-test design with a control group and a two-month follow-up period. The statistical population included all children with special learning disabilities in the third and fourth grades of primary school in the academic year 2022-2023 in Esfahan, of which 30 were selected in an available manner and finally were randomly divided into two groups of 15 (experimental and control). Participants completed Clark et al.'s (2015) Academic Incivility Questionnaire and Reeve's (2013) Academic Engagement Questionnaire for the pre-test. In the following, the desired training package was implemented for the experimental group for 8 sessions, each session lasting 45-60 minutes. While the group did not receive a training certificate. In the end, the experimental and control groups completed the Academic Incivility Questionnaire and the Academic Engagement Questionnaire as a post-test. Finally, the data were analyzed using SPSS-24 software using the method of variance analysis with repeated measurements. The analysis of the research data showed that the educational package of the multimedia learning environment model has significantly led to the improvement of academic engagement and Academic incivility (p<0.001). Therefore, it can be concluded that the educational package of the multimedia learning environment model was effective in increasing academic engagement and reducing the Academic incivility of students with specific learning disorders and its durability remained after two months.
Keywords: Multimedia Learning Environment Model, Learning Disabilities, Academic Engagement and Academic Incivility.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
It is well-established that each year, a substantial number of students encounter difficulties in maintaining the same academic pace as their peers due to inadequate special education. This issue is especially prevalent amongst students with specific learning disabilities, which can seriously impact their ability to process, analyze, and store information efficiently. Specific learning disabilities, which encompass difficulties in areas such as reading and math (dyslexia, dyscalculia), as well as writing (dysgraphia), spelling, auditory and processing, significantly impact a substantial number of individuals. It's noteworthy that the age range of individuals affected by specific learning disorders typically falls between 10 to 15 years. Research in the field of special education encompasses a range of topics, with some researchers focusing on identifying the challenges faced by children with learning disabilities, while other researchers explore plans, interventions, and methods aimed at facilitating and enhancing their learning abilities. The study's objective was to explore the potential of multimedia learning technology and its applications in supporting the learning process of students with specific learning disorders, particularly in the field of mathematics. Through the utilization of this innovative technology, the goal was to identify effective methods for addressing the unique needs of these learners and ultimately contribute to their academic success.
This study represents the first attempt in the country to examine the impact of a model based on multimedia educational design principles on academic engagement and norm avoidance in individuals with specific math-related learning disorders (specifically, specific learning disorders related to mathematics). While there has been some research into developing various educational programs aimed at enhancing academic engagement and minimizing academic norm avoidance in students, there has been no study specifically focused on developing a multimedia program in the area of special learning disabilities in math to assess its effectiveness (as a teaching technique). Given these circumstances, the proposed study holds significant potential to positively impact academic engagement and academic norm avoidance for individuals with specific learning disabilities, and it aims to explore the effectiveness of the educational package based on the multimedia learning environment model in enhancing academic engagement and minimizing academic norm avoidance among this group of learners.
Method
The current study was conducted as a pre-test, follow-up test experimental design with a control group. The statistical population consisted of boys' primary schools in district 1 in Isfahan city during the academic year 1401-1402. Students from the third and fourth grades of the schools were selected as participants for further analysis. In experimental research, the recommended sample size for each group is 10 to 15 individuals, although the use of at least 5 participants per group in cases of limited access to clinical samples is acceptable while considering certain factors. For the purpose of selecting participants for the study, a comprehensive evaluation process was employed, encompassing math tests, the Raven's IQ test, an assessment of academic records, and teachers' reports. Consequently, a total of 30 students with math disorders were identified and randomly divided into two groups (experimental and control) consisting of 15 individuals each. Apart from the Norm Avoidance Questionnaire, revised by Clark et al. (2015), the study also incorporated Riveh's Academic Conflict Questionnaire (2013). This multi-item scale, comprised of 13 questions, assesses academic conflict across three dimensions: Cognitive Conflict, Behavioral Conflict, and Agent Conflict. The training package under focus was an educational technique known as the multimedia learning environment model. This model comprised a total of 8 face-to-face sessions, each lasting between 45 to 60 minutes. This model covered three distinct categories of cognitive conflict, behavioral conflict, and agent conflict.
Findings
Analyzing the demographic information of the individuals included in this study reveals that the participants were 30 male elementary school students diagnosed with specific mathematic learning disorders in the third and fourth grades, within the age range of 9 to 10 years. Notably, the average age was recorded to be 9.53 years, with a standard deviation of 0.24. The results of the analysis revealed statistically significant differences within and between the groups for both the academic involvement and academic norm avoidance variables (p<0.001). Furthermore, the significance of the interaction effects indicates a pronounced divergence in the changes observed in academic engagement and academic norm avoidance scores between the control group and the multimedia learning environment group across the testing stages (p<0.001).
The analysis of the study results demonstrated that the educational package type had a significant impact on both academic engagement and academic norm avoidance variables at various assessment stages, as substantiated by the significant level less than 0.001 and the corresponding eta square value. The analysis of the effectiveness of the educational multimedia environment model package revealed a statistically significant difference in mean scores for academic engagement (specifically cognitive engagement, behavioral engagement, and agent engagement) and academic norm avoidance (both mild and severe behaviors) from the pre-test to the follow-up stages (P<0.001). Moreover, the data analysis demonstrated a significant decrease in the academic norm avoidance variable (both mild and severe behaviors) from the pre-test phase to the follow-up phase in students with specific disorders. Furthermore, the comparative analysis of the mean scores among the conflict variables (cognitive conflict, behavioral conflict, and agent conflict) revealed no statistically significant differences (P<0.05) between the pre-test and follow-up phases.
Discussion and conclusion
In this study, the repeated measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), a statistical technique for analyzing repeated measurements within the same group, was utilized to assess the influence of the multimedia learning environment on academic norm avoidance manifested by students with specific math learning disorders. The results of the analysis revealed that there was a significant difference in the average scores obtained between the pre-test, final test, and follow-up phases within the group exposed to the multimedia learning environment (significant level < 0.001). A comparison of average scores across the three stages (pre-test, final exam, and follow-up stages) demonstrated a significant decline in academic norm avoidance scores, as evidenced by the significant level of <0.001 found in the statistical analysis. Despite the existence of significant differences in the pre-test and final exam phases, there was no significant difference observed between the pre-test and follow-up phases of the test scores. Studies suggest that children with specific mathematical learning Disabilities often encounter challenges in processing social information, which can lead to underdeveloped interpersonal skills, increased social rejection, feelings of isolation, and heightened aggression in children with specific mathematical learning Disability.
The educational multimedia program incorporates elements such as modeling and providing feedback to promote interactive learning and skill development. To this end, individuals are engaged in group play sessions that simulate real-life scenarios, facilitating practice in handling social challenges. This investigation emphasized the significance of modern technologies in the field of education. The educational multimedia program highlights the utilization of multiple senses and visual examples to support the learning process, allowing students to engage in repeated practice and adapt to individual differences. Given the increase in demand for educational media in teaching methodologies, computers and other educational tools have become increasingly significant. The findings of the present study, in conjunction with previous research, indicate that the use of educational multimedia holds significant potential to positively influence children's behavioral responses in social and academic contexts. This can lead to the formation of healthy relationships and foster an active and dynamic learning environment within the school setting, thereby supporting a more well-rounded individual development. It is crucial to recognize the benefits of educational multimedia while also emphasizing the importance of establishing a correct culture of technology utilization and providing appropriate platforms to ensure effective and efficient application towards children’s academic advancement.
In-line with the findings of this study, there was a significant disparity between the mean scores acquired at the pre-test, final examination, and follow-up phases within the multimedia learning environment group. A close analysis of the average scores across the three stages revealed a marked increase in academic involvement from the pre-test to the final examination and follow-up phases. These findings highlight the advantages of modern educational technologies, particularly multimedia, in creating an environment conducive to effective learning. The use of these technologies, with their unique benefits such as increased listening comprehension rates and accurate answers, simplifies the evaluation processes. Furthermore, they contribute to a calm and favorable learning environment, fostering a deeper understanding of concepts. The advantages of educational technologies, particularly multimedia, extend far beyond merely increasing the accuracy of answers. They provide comprehensive learning experiences by eliminating unnecessary cognitive overload and increasing efficiency through the effective integration of text, images, and other visual aids. The integration of new information with prior knowledge not only fosters improved academic performance overall, but also serves to increase academic engagement across a wide range of subjects. Effective academic engagement, as a result, becomes indispensable for the student's academic success. Active participation in academic activities fosters both success and achievement, while passivity in academic pursuits leads to difficulties and failure.
Research Paper
omid isanejad; Avin Mohammadi
Abstract
Raising and taking care of children with special needs is a significant as well as challenging matter. Many approaches have been utilized to increase the quality of education for them and reduce the adverse impacts of variables such as stress and depression. One of these approaches, which has received ...
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Raising and taking care of children with special needs is a significant as well as challenging matter. Many approaches have been utilized to increase the quality of education for them and reduce the adverse impacts of variables such as stress and depression. One of these approaches, which has received a lot of attention in recent decades in Iran, is logotherapy. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the effectiveness of logotherapy in parents of children with special needs. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the effectiveness of logotherapy in parents of children with special needs. Using the meta-analysis method, this research determines the effect size of logotherapy by integrating the results of different research. Nine reviewed studies, published between 2011 and 2021, in terms of methodology were selected and meta-analysis was performed on them. The sources of data search were SID, NOORMAGS, MAGIRAN, and CIVILICA. Data analysis was done using CMA2 software and Hedges' g index. The findings show that investigating the heterogeneity of effects using Cochran's Q test, the Q value was 153.30 and the I square was 92.17, which is significant (p<0.001). As a result, the effect sizes are heterogeneous and the random effect model should be considered to analyze the effects. The size of the random effect is equal to 1.08. Similarly, the value of random hedges' g equal to 1.04 was obtained. Therefore, it can be said that logotherapy has had a great effect on the parents of children with special needs.
Keywords: Meta-Analysis, Logo-Therapy, Parents of Children with Special Needs.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The presence of children in families is often associated with positive emotions and experiences. Nevertheless, children with special needs can engender feelings of psychological stress for families (Hadi, et al., 2020). Children with special needs are characterized as those affected by intellectual disabilities, hearing impairments, speech or language impairments, visual impairments, serious emotional disturbances, orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health impairments, or specific learning disabilities, necessitating specialized educational services (Hadi, et al., 2020). Parenting in itself poses challenges, and these difficulties can become magnified in the context of caring for children with disabilities (Masefield et. al., 2020).
Studies have demonstrated that parents of children with special needs experience elevated levels of stress and depression (Masefield, et. al., 2020; Plant & Sanders, 2007). Moreover, these parents encounter a formidable array of caregiving challenges that further exacerbate psychological stress and jeopardize their mental well-being (Smith, et al., 2022). Research also indicates that numerous therapeutic interventions are employed to foster mental health and relieve stress within parental caregiving, particularly among parents of children with special needs (Benn et. al., 2012). Parents frequently lean on spirituality for support but also require professional assistance. Studies consistently indicate that logotherapy education exerts a substantial positive effect on the well-being of individuals with disabilities and their parents. It has been shown that a deeper understanding of life is strongly associated with enhanced quality of life, physical well-being, and diminished levels of psychological stress, depression, and anxiety (Roepke et. al., 2014; Steger, 2013). A valuable method for reconciling disparate findings across diverse studies is meta-analysis, a statistical technique that amalgamates the outcomes from independent studies, thereby resulting in conclusions that are both more valid and precise than those generated by singular studies (Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001). Meta-analysis encompasses a set of systematic procedures for resolving discrepancies in research findings by aggregating and correlating the results of multiple studies utilizing a common metric (Lipsey & Wilson. 2001).
Research Question
The central research query concerns the efficacy of group logotherapy in previous studies, specifically in its application to parents of children with special needs.
Methodology
This study employed a meta-analysis approach, meticulously adhering to the prescribed research objectives. The chosen studies strictly adhered to predefined inclusion criteria, covering methodological considerations such as the population, sample, validity and reliability of instruments, statistical analysis methods, and the precision of calculations. The initial stage involved a comprehensive review of all research conducted in Iran, spanning from 2011 to 2021, that examined the effectiveness of logotherapy for parents of children with special needs. These included the search terms: "group logotherapy," "effectiveness of group logotherapy," "parents of children with special needs," and "parents of children with disabilities." To calculate the effect size, the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 2 (CMA2) software, along with Hedges' g index, were selected as the primary analysis method.
Results
The information presented in Table 1 includes the mean effect sizes of studies on logotherapy, focusing on the difficulties faced by families with special needs children. Here, logotherapy serves as the independent variable, whereas various dimensions connected to the parents of these children constitute the dependent variables. Through the examination of Cochran's Q test, a Q value of 153.30 and an I-squared value of 92.17 was obtained, which signifies significance (p<0.001). This discrepancy indicates that the log therapy effect sizes in this study are variable, suggesting the need for a random effect model for further analysis. In the output generated by CMA, a random effect size of 1.08 was determined. The random value of Hedges' g was calculated to be 1.04, with the effect size of the intervention deemed to be large (greater than 0.8) and highly significant (p<0.001). Consequently, this leads to the conclusion that logotherapy possesses a substantial impact on the difficulties faced by families with special needs.
Table 1. Results of meta-analysis, based on effect size indices
p
Z
0.95 CI
Hedges' g
Means differences
Dependent variables
Upper bond
Lower bond
g
S.E
Variance
Std.D
S.E
0.08
1.77
-0.07
1.36
0.65
0.36
0.65
0.66
0.38
Happiness
0.22
1.22
-0.27
1.14
0.44
0.36
0.44
0.45
0.37
Mental Health
0.02
2.25
0.13
1.93
1.03
0.46
1.03
1.08
0.48
Parent-Child Relationship
0.00
5.68
3.62
7.43
5.52
0.97
5.52
5.77
1.02
Family Functioning
0.00
5.04
1.86
4.22
3.04
0.60
3.04
3.15
0.62
Meaning in Life
0.04
-2.03
-1.80
-0.03
-0.92
0.45
-0.92
-0.96
0.47
Quality of Life
0.00
-4.71
-4.28
-1.76
-3.02
0.64
-3.02
-3.15
0.67
Resilience
0.01
2.59
0.24
1.71
0.98
0.38
0.98
1.00
0.39
Coherence
0.04
2.07
0.03
1.15
0.59
0.28
0.59
0.60
0.29
Quality of Life
0.01
-2.80
-1.56
-0.28
-0.92
0.33
-0.92
-0.93
0.33
Perceived Stress
0.00
6.86
2.37
4.26
3.31
0.48
3.31
3.38
0.49
Mental Health
0.00
2.84
0.32
1.77
1.05
0.37
1.05
1.07
0.38
Depression
0.00
4.27
1.67
4.49
3.08
0.72
3.08
3.26
0.76
Sense of Loneliness
0.00
5.70
0.44
0.89
0.67
0.12
0.67
0.68
0.12
Fixed effects
0.01
2.43
0.20
1.88
1.04
0.43
1.04
1.08
0.44
Random effects
Figure 1. Figure 1. Funnel Plot Results for Assessing Publication Bias
The presented data in Figure 1 depicts the Funnel Plot, which illustrates the symmetry of the data points on both sides of the central line, thereby indicating relative symmetry and minimal bias.
Discussion
The main tenet of logotherapy is based on the notion that individuals possess an inherent will to assign a sense of meaning to life. This view contrasts with Freud's notion of a pleasure principle, as well as Adler's emphasis on the concept of the will to power. Instead, this third Viennese approach to psychotherapy advocates for a fundamental "will to meaning" (Frankl, 2006). The quest for meaning is considered of fundamental importance, and it is not merely a secondary rationalization stemming from instinctual drives. Individuals can find meaning through engaging in valued experiences and achieving a state of peak experience through various activities, as well as through the challenges that life presents and by overcoming adversity (Frankl, 2006).
The fundamental principles of MCT are aimed at cultivating and finding sources of meaning and purpose in life. One key element is the reinterpretation of stressful events, framing them as positive opportunities rather than negative challenges. MCT posits that by embracing the fundamental human freedom of will, accepting responsibility for unavoidable suffering, and recognizing the inherent meaning in hardships and obstacles, individuals can assume control over the decisions they make in response to life's adversities. The transformative quality of MCT is evident in its ability to facilitate a shift in perspective on difficulties, enabling individuals to cope more effectively with adversity. MCT therapists employ a variety of techniques, including employing religious/spiritual frameworks, mindfulness practices, goal-oriented exercises, emphasizing a specific sense of meaning in each session, and addressing issues related to self-worth and existential limitations. Through these methods, MCT therapists can enhance the client's quality of life. MCT is regarded as an effective intervention method, as demonstrated by the numerous individuals who have benefited from it, thereby fostering the continued development of this therapeutic approach (Vos & Vitali, 2018).
Conclusion
The findings from this study highlight the effectiveness of MCT in enhancing the well-being of parents of children with special needs. Hence, the application of this therapeutic approach should be extended to counseling centers, support organizations for children with special needs and their families, as well as educational settings, in order to improve the quality of life for this population. Our study results draw attention to a significant variance in the effect sizes across the studies analyzed in this meta-analysis. This inconsistency may be explained by differences in sampling methods, disparities in measurement instruments, dissimilarities in the number and duration of therapy sessions, as well as variables in the implementation of the MCT intervention and therapist adherence to treatment protocols.
Research Paper
fatemeh jafarkhani; Hoda Mohsenifard; azin yazdi; Mozhgan Ghanat
Abstract
Abstract
The present study sought to provide an overview of bibliometric review articles in the field of dyslexia with learning games. For this reason, there has been a review of related reviews in the field of dyslexia and learning games. In this study, 31 review articles were analyzed and reviewed, ...
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Abstract
The present study sought to provide an overview of bibliometric review articles in the field of dyslexia with learning games. For this reason, there has been a review of related reviews in the field of dyslexia and learning games. In this study, 31 review articles were analyzed and reviewed, which are the points suggested by Block and Fish for bibliometric analysis in order to evaluate the structure and development of the topic and show Giving future research directions in the field of dyslexia follow-up and analysis was done. Various aspects of dyslexia research were identified with the bibliometric method, including the identification of highly cited articles, leading universities and countries, as well as the evolution of the subject and the trend of this field. The results of this analysis showed that game-based learning is well developed in studies related to dyslexia and the most common keywords in them after dyslexia, learning disorders and omega-3 acid, were game-based intervention, serious games and phonological awareness.
Keywords: Game-based Learning, bibliometric, dyslexia, game-based learning, students.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Bibliometric analysis holds advantages over conventional reviews, as it delves into fundamental and overarching aspects to establish a reference point. 'Bibliometric networks' are employed to uncover various networks, incorporating author connections, collaborations, and keyword co-occurrence, all of which facilitate the evaluation of the evolution, structure, and trends in scientific research within a particular field (Agouti, et al., 2021). Dyslexia, a neurodevelopmental disorder, is defined by difficulties in word recognition, poor spelling, and decoding abilities (Jan & Khan, 2023). It is the most common form of Specific Learning Disorder (SLD), with approximately 9-12% of the global population affected by it. Dyslexic individuals encounter difficulties in word recognition, spelling and decoding skills (International Dyslexia Association, 2022). Secondary consequences include challenges with comprehension and decreased reading experience, which hinder vocabulary development and background knowledge acquisition.
Research findings suggest that utilizing information and communication technologies (ICT), and specifically through gamification, emerges as an effective approach for educating individuals with dyslexia. Customizing game content, adjusting difficulty levels, regulating pacing mechanisms, and providing feedback can significantly enhance engagement and learning outcomes. Investigations into the effectiveness of personalized approaches and the development of strategies to tailor game-based interventions for specific dyslexia profiles can yield valuable insights for educators, game developers, and researchers. Evidence suggests that when serious games serve as assistive technologies, they possess the potential to enhance the literacy process for individuals with dyslexia (Malaquias & Malaquias, 2021). Additionally, a considerable portion of existing literature on game-based learning for those with dyslexia has centered on improving attention and perception through action video games (Franceschini et al., 2015).
Literature Review
A bibliometric analysis has revealed that gamification can partly ameliorate reading difficulties in dyslexic children (Jadán-Guerrero et al., 2023). Based on a review of the existing literature, it is evident that this field has garnered considerable interest from researchers studying dyslexia. Bibliometric analysis serves to identify emerging trends in research performance, collaboration dynamics, and crucial research components, shedding light on the intellectual structure of a particular domain (Hyland & Jiang, 2021). In 2021, Zhang, Fan, and Zhang conducted a bibliometric analysis on 100 highly cited studies in the field of dyslexia, indicating advancements in this research area (Zhang, et al., 2021). A recent bibliometric analysis provided an overview of the current research situation and developmental characteristics of dyslexia with respect to article types, years, countries, institutions, and journals, in addition to identifying author keywords and highly cited articles (Wu et al., 2022). Additionally, a separate bibliometric analysis revealed that utilizing gamification-based reading skills has partially ameliorated reading difficulties in dyslexic children (Jadán-Guerrero et al., 2023).
A review of existing literature indicates that bibliometric studies focusing on dyslexia have garnered considerable attention from researchers in this field. These studies explore emerging trends in research performance, collaboration patterns, critical research components, and the intellectual structure of a particular domain (Hyland & Jiang, 2021). Citation analysis is a precise method for meticulously exploring and analyzing vast amounts of scientific data, enabling researchers to better understand the subtle evolutionary differences of a specific field and remain cognizant of its emerging aspects (Donthu, Choudhary, & Dharwadkar 2021).
Methodology
This research surpasses traditional review studies by employing two distinct types of analysis. Firstly, bibliometric analysis is utilized to present a variety of aspects related to the research on dyslexia, which includes the identification of highly cited papers, prominent universities, countries active in this field, as well as an evaluation of the evolution of the subject matter and trends within the domain. In addition to the above-mentioned bibliometric analysis, a more extensive examination of the dyslexia field is provided through VoSviewer and network analyses such as co-citation, co-authorship, and keyword co-occurrence, accompanied by interpretations of these findings. As a secondary analysis, content analysis is conducted to identify prominent trends within the field, thereby assisting researchers in discovering potential research avenues for future endeavors. Therefore, this research study employed the R version 4.1 (R Development Core Team, 2021) along with several of its libraries, which included the bibliometric and word cloud libraries. Additionally, the VoSviewer software was utilized to carry out citation analysis.
Result
This study has revealed a growing body of research on dyslexia and game-based learning. Despite the presence of certain research gaps, the field has experienced significant growth. The 2020 research interests in dyslexia were primarily centered around the keyword "video game." A more detailed analysis of research topics revealed that keywords such as "human" and "dyslexia" were the most extensively developed, while the topic of "game-based" showed notable growth. The research landscape surrounding dyslexia and its relationship with educational games has experienced significant growth, as indicated by a surge in the number of studies and citations in this area over the past decade. The concept of "human-computer interaction" warrants further development, particularly in relation to its implementation within educational game applications.
Research Paper
zahra mohamadi; amir ghamarani
Abstract
The increasing incidence of emotional and behavioral disorders in children and the challenges associated with them and their families stress the need to address the quality of family interactions, particularly those between mothers and their children. The purpose of this study was to investigate the ...
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The increasing incidence of emotional and behavioral disorders in children and the challenges associated with them and their families stress the need to address the quality of family interactions, particularly those between mothers and their children. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of mother-child interaction training, which draws upon the principles of the Precede model, on the meta-emotional philosophy of mothers and their children's emotional-behavioral problems. This research project was designed as a semi-experimental study adopting a pre-test and post-test format with a control group. The participants in this study consisted of mothers of children with emotional-behavioral disorders, and the study sample was selected from a total population of 30 individuals. Fifteen participants were randomly assigned to the experimental group, while 15 others were assigned to the control group. For the experimental group, participants attended 6 sessions of mother-child interaction training based on the Precede model, while the control group received no intervention. Both groups were assessed using the following research instruments: Evelyne kehe’s (2006) meta-emotional philosophy questionnaire and Achenbach's (1992) child behavior checklist-parent form, which were administered both prior to and following the intervention. Data analysis in the study was performed using two methods: univariate and multivariate (multivariate) ANCOVA tests executed in the SPSS software (version 26.00). The results revealed a significant difference in both variable values in the experimental and control groups, with a significance level of less than 0.05. The findings suggest that this intervention had a positive and significant impact in improving both metam-emotion philosophy (F = 201.568, P = 0.0001) and emotional-behavioral problems (F = 36.588, P = 0.0001). These effects were significant at the α = 0.05 significance level. The findings demonstrate that mother-child interaction training based on the Precede model was effective in significantly improving mothers’ meta-emotional philosophies and reducing emotional-behavioral problems in adolescents aged 11-14 years. Considering the pivotal role of the mother's role in their children, it is recommended that providing educational interventions to mothers, to strengthen their relationship with their children, would be effective in reducing and managing children's emotional-behavioral problems.
Keywords: Mother-Child Interaction; Precede Model; Meta-Emotion Philosophy; Emotional Behavioral Problems.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The presence of emotional and behavioral problems among children is a significant issue within the field of clinical psychology and the psychology of children with special needs. Notably, a considerable number of children in the pre-primary school age bracket are affected by such problems. The importance of this issue is further magnified due to the high number of students with mental health problems who are also grappling with emotional and behavioral challenges. According to Zupard et al. (2023), family factors are significant contributors to children's behavioral problems. Specifically, supportive maternal interactions are associated with positive social and emotional outcomes, while controlling interactions predict negative outcomes for children. Bell (2020) supports this notion, asserting that supportive maternal interactions can foster healthy socio-emotional development in children. Effectively, effective mother-child communication contributes to several beneficial outcomes for children, including improved social skills (Rezapour, Kohestani, & Erfan, 1401), enhanced self-regulation and emotional-social consequences (Bell, 2020), and ultimately, enhanced psychological and social abilities (Thompson, 2008).
Mother-child interaction constitutes an emotional and psychological bond between the two, and it hinges on the child's past experience of the dynamics of their relationship with the mother (Lindsey, 2021). Research indicates that positive interactions between mothers and children help reduce instances of behavioral problems (Hashemi & eini, 1400). Moreover, high-quality interactions exhibit an inverse correlation with both externalized and internalized behavioral issues (Dubois et al., 2015). Overall, enhancing the quality of mother-child interaction emerges as a vital factor in minimizing or ameliorating the challenges associated with children experiencing emotional-behavioral issues. Conversely, the concept of meta-emotional philosophy is intricately linked to the relationship between mother and child. According to Nunes et al. (2022), strong meta-emotion is observed in mothers who foster positive relationships with their children, with a clear indication that children of mothers exhibiting high levels of meta emotion philosophy exhibit a secure attachment to their mothers (Chen et al., 2012). In light of this connection, enhancing the quality of mother-child interaction can effectively institutionalize meta-emotional strategies within the parent-child relationship. The notion of meta-emotion signifies second-order emotions—that is, emotions experienced in relation to one's own emotions or those of others (Miceli & Castelfrani, 2019). Similarly, the meta-emotional philosophy of parents pertains to their emotional response to their child's emotions. Children struggling with emotional and behavioral disorders encounter numerous challenges related to emotion regulation and control of negative emotions (Najati-Far et al., 2019).
Studies conducted in recent years indicate that greater emotional development in mothers is associated with reduced levels of both internalized and externalized problems in children. Furthermore, research suggests that mothers' emotional dysfunction can serve as a predictor for increased instances of internalized and externalized issues (He, et al., 2020). Given the heightened prevalence of emotional and behavioral problems among these mothers, it is plausible that their meta-emotional philosophies are relatively weak. Consequently, it becomes imperative to implement a program that bolsters the meta-emotional philosophy in parents whose children are grappling with emotional and behavioral issues. A thorough review of the effectiveness of interventions based on mother-child interaction in children grappling with emotional-behavioral issues reveals that these difficulties tend to resurface following treatment (Levi et al., 2021) and can persist into adulthood (Fan et. al., 2024). Supporting this claim, research has found correlations between elevated levels of maltreatment in childhood and interpersonal issues in adulthood (Mayer et al., 2019). The research conducted by Arslan et al. (2020) established a correlation between the presence of externalized behavioral problems in children and the emergence of maladaptive behaviors during adulthood. Furthermore, it was observed that these problems can persist until adolescence and even extend into adulthood (Agnafors, 2021). This prolonged persistence of behavioral problems often proves challenging to treat effectively, thereby increasing the risk of developing mental health issues during adulthood.
In recent years, methods that aim to promote health-related desirable behaviors and have demonstrated lasting effects have become increasingly popular, with interventions rooted in the Precede model being among them. The Precede model, developed by Green et al. in 1974, serves as an effective theoretical framework for identifying health and health education needs, comprising two components: educational diagnosis (precede) and ecological diagnosis (proceed). The Precede model's intervention focuses on altering the context of the family by strengthening positive factors, thereby reinforcing a healthy mother-child interaction as a social norm within this small society. Furthermore, by introducing and highlighting the support resources available to mothers, the intervention can have a more profound impact and leave a lasting impression on these parents. Based on the characteristics of the intervention rooted in the Precede model, which encompasses stages and components, it is anticipated that mothers of children with emotional-behavioral issues will achieve skills that are persistent and become an integrated part of their daily lives through this intervention. This transformation presents a significant challenge and appears unattainable for these mothers, as highlighted by Rubino et al. (2023).
Inspired by the aforementioned research findings, the researchers of this study devised an intervention based on the Precede model to achieve impactful and enduring outcomes in reducing the severity of emotional-behavioral problems. The meticulous research conducted by the research team in both local and international sources has highlighted a significant research gap concerning interventions grounded in the Precede model within the psychological field when compared to studies in the medical and health domains. In light of this gap, a notable absence of interventions targeting mother-child interaction, particularly for children grappling with emotional-behavioral challenges, becomes particularly manifest. The necessity to improve the quality of mother-child interaction in children grappling with emotional-behavioral challenges is unequivocally recognized, especially given the potential long-term impact of the asked model in cultivating positive interactions between mothers and their children. Consequently, the central focus of this research endeavor is to investigate the effectiveness of an educational intervention grounded in the Precede model on both mothers' meta-emotional philosophies and children's emotional-behavioral issues.
Research Questions
This study pursues the following research questions:
Is mother-child interaction training based on the Precede model effective on the meta-emotional philosophy of mothers?
Is the teaching of mother-child interaction based on the Precede model effective on children's emotional-behavioral problems?
Literature Review
Recent studies indicate that positive mother-child interactions can reduce children's behavioral problems (Hashemi and eini, 1400). Consistent findings indicate that interventions grounded in the Precede model have demonstrated efficacy in addressing diverse objectives, including: (1) enhancing psychological well-being in women (Meshki et al., 2022), (2) fostering self-care practices among high blood pressure patients (a study by Abadi et al., 2019), (3) fostering the mental health of middle-aged women (Shiani Jalili, 2014), and (4) promoting healthy lifestyles for hypertensive patients (Hosseini et al., 2013). Research conducted both within and outside of Iran reveals a significant research gap concerning the employment of interventions based on the Precede model in the field of psychology compared to research conducted in the medicine and health domains. This research gap is particularly evident given the absence of any intervention focusing specifically on mother-child interaction with children experiencing emotional-behavioral difficulties.
Methodology
This research project was conducted as a semi-experimental study, comprised of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments. The study population included all mothers with children displaying external behavioral issues enrolled in regular schools in Isfahan during the academic year 2019-2020. Diagnosing children's behavioral problems utilized the Achenbach Behavior Problems Questionnaire. For the purpose of selecting the sample, a convenience and purposive sampling method was employed. Firstly, the mothers of students with identified emotional and behavioral difficulties were invited to participate in the research, from which a sample of 30 individuals who met the inclusion criteria were chosen. Data collection commenced with the assessment of dependent variables in the pre-test phase. Following this, an intervention based on the Precede model was executed in six, 60-minute sessions (one session per week) for the experimental group. Subsequently, in the follow-up phase, after the intervention's conclusion, both the experimental and control groups were assessed on dependent variables. The difference between pre-test and follow-up scores for the experimental and control groups was then statistically analyzed to establish the effect of the independent variable.
Results
The utilization of tables and figures in documents serves a principal purpose, which is to augment the readers' comprehension of the information contained within the document. It is both lucid and efficient to communicate information through tables and figures, as this approach enhances understanding. As a general rule, apply a border at the top and bottom of the table, beneath the column headings, above column spanners, and to segregate a row containing totals or other summary information from other rows in the table. Restrict the usage of borders or lines in a table, employing them only when necessary to enhance clarity. Avoid utilizing vertical borders to separate data, and refrain from incorporating borders around every cell in a table. Space between columns and rows, as well as precise alignment, enhances clarity in table elements. Also, add a single blank, double-spaced line between the table and any preceding text for enhanced visual presentation. Furthermore, ensure that the font size for table content is set to 10 Times New Roman, and position tables and figures left-aligned.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of meta emotional philosophy and emotional behavioral problems
control
experimental
standard deviation
Mean
standard deviation
Mean
N
tese
42/7
63/25
04/9
47/23
15
Pre test
Sufficiency and competence
35/7
47/26
85/7
20/35
15
Post test
76/13
27/48
87/13
46/45
15
Pre test
Emotional coaching
04/14
66/48
79/14
60/65
15
Post test
34/19
20/74
79/21
93/68
15
Pre test
Meta emotional philsophy
25/19
13/75
10/21
108
15
Post test
91/13
60/37
16/13
20/27
15
Pre test
Internlaized problems
35/14
27/38
69/10
80/20
15
Post test
55/13
06/41
52/21
87/34
15
Pre test
externlaized problems
04/15
53/42
38/16
40/26
15
Post test
06/16
66/78
85/15
06/62
15
Pre test
Behavioral problems
42/17
80/80
60/12
20/47
15
Post test
Table 2. results of univariate analysis of covariance mean post-test scores on meta-emotional philosophy and behavioral problems
Test power
Effect size
Sig
F
Mean of square
df
Sum of square
Stage
000/1
919/0
0001/0
566/306
099/10503
1
099/10503
Pre test
Post test
Meta emotional philsophy
000/1
882/0
0001/0
568/201
824/6905
1
824/6905
Group
261/34
27
034/925
Error
30
000/248513
Total
000/1
733/0
0001/0
229/74
820/4747
1
820/4747
Pre test
Pott test
Behavioral problem
000/1
575/0
0001/0
588/36
265/2340
1
265/2340
Group
27
980/1726
Error
30
000/137822
Total
Discussion
In line with previous research findings showing a significant relationship between parenting styles and meta-emotional philosophy (Basaknejad, Younesi, & Janadele, 2018), as well as the inclusion of parenting style education within the Precede model-based intervention, these findings were anticipated. Additionally, during the training sessions based on the Precede model, the concept of "mindful parenting" was introduced to the mothers. Given the proven effectiveness of mindful parenting in improving "mothers' emotion regulation" (Badiei et al., 2020), it is logical that mothers, upon completing the training, would have improved their capability to appropriately manage their children's emotions. Studies indicate that children with emotional and behavioral issues struggle with recognizing their inner feelings, as well as understanding their emotional experiences (Persan & Jandari, 2018). Moreover, addressing these challenges relies heavily on enhancing mothers' meta-emotional philosophy, which subsequently strengthens their emotion regulation skills. Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of this method in improving externalized behavioral issues among kids (Nejatifar, Abedi & Ghamrani, 2019).
Conclusion
The research findings indicate that mother-child interaction training grounded in the Precede model significantly elevates mothers' meta-emotional philosophy and concurrently reduces their children's emotional and behavioral issues.
Acknowledgments
We express our profound gratitude to all the mothers who actively participated in our intervention sessions. We also extend our sincere appreciation to all individuals who contributed to the successful completion of this research venture.
Research Paper
Ali Shabanzadeh; Mohammadbagher hasanvand
Abstract
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of schema therapy on the symptoms of Anxiety Disorder in mothers with Intellectual Developmental Disorder children in Quds city. This research was conducted as a semi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test, also featuring a ...
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Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of schema therapy on the symptoms of Anxiety Disorder in mothers with Intellectual Developmental Disorder children in Quds city. This research was conducted as a semi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test, also featuring a control group. The statistical population of this research included all mothers with Intellectual Developmental Disorder Children residing in Quds city attending the academic year of 2022-2023, from which 30 participants were selected through convenience sampling and subsequently divided randomly into 2 groups consisting of 15 individuals: experimental and control. To assess anxiety levels, both groups initially completed the Beck's Anxiety Inventory (1998) as a pre-test. The experimental group subsequently received 12 sessions of schema therapy, while the control group followed their regular daily routine. Following both group's completion of the post-test, inferential (covariance analysis) and descriptive statistics (central tendency and dispersion indices) were employed to analyze the research data. The findings revealed a significant and positive effect of schema therapy on reducing Anxiety Disorder symptoms (η=0/290,P<0/005). The results clearly indicate that implementing schema therapy as an effective treatment option can significantly reduce the symptoms of Anxiety Disorder in mothers with Intellectual Developmental Disorder children, thereby enhancing their overall mental status and daily functioning.
Keywords: Anxiety Disorder, Intellectual Developmental Disorder, Mothers, Schema Therapy.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Intellectual Developmental Disorder, which affects around 2-3% of the general population, has a significant societal impact (Jansen et al., 2023). This developmental disorder, recognized by a defect in the development of intelligence, reflects deficits that arise during a person's formative years. To clarify, the term "Intellectual Developmental Disorder" has a specific meaning in the field of mental health. It refers to a condition that affects an individual's ability to adapt to different situations, understand and use various concepts, engage in effective social communication, and perform practical and practical tasks. This condition, as defined by the American Psychiatric Association (2023), reduces a person's capacity to communicate and benefit from life resources. The birth of a child with Intellectual Developmental Disorder can be a sudden and overwhelming experience for families. It often triggers strong reactions and a sense of shock among family members. This shock can lead to deep worries and stress, as well as the emergence of unexpected challenges. The presence of a child with Intellectual Developmental Disorder can significantly impact the daily life of the family and disrupt their routines. This situation may involve significant changes in the family's daily routines and necessitates appropriate support for the child. (Qasemipour & Roshan, 2019; Bahadori Khosroshahi, 2017).
Mothers often fulfill the traditional role of primary caregiver, taking on the responsibility of providing care and nurturing to their children. This role extends beyond just fulfilling their physical needs and encompasses their psychological and social development as well. Therefore, due to their crucial role, mothers encounter the challenges and psychological problems of their children head-on. As the primary caregivers, they play a critical role in influencing and shaping the development of their children's personalities(Halstead, Ekas, et al., 2018; Kraaij et al., 2010; Ogston et al., 2011). Proven effective, Schema therapy addresses chronic psychopathology(Voshaar et al., 2024). This type of treatment aims to improve individuals' performance and mental wellbeing through the combination of cognitive and behavioral concepts, resulting in reduced mental and behavioral issues (Cox & Root, 2020). Schema therapy is a combination of therapies used to alleviate challenging symptoms. It effectively addresses moderate to severe manifestations of personality disorders and complex trauma (Bernstein et al., 2023; Edwards, 2022; Simpson & Smith, 2019; Yakın et al., 2020). Over recent years, this treatment approach has gained popularity and become a prominent diagnostic method (Salicru, 2024). This study found that approximately 61% of mothers with children diagnosed with Intellectual Developmental Disorder experienced anxiety, while around half dealt with depression. These findings indicate that this population of women face a high level of mental pressure. Indeed, this situation has detrimental effects on individuals' personal lives, but also imposes social and financial costs on families and society as a whole (Sharma et al., 2023). This highlights the significance of conducting research in this area, as it can contribute to enhancing the mental health and overall well-being of mothers affected by IDD.
Research Question
Does schema therapy have an effect on symptoms of Anxiety Disorder in mothers with children diagnosed with Intellectual Developmental Disorder?
Literature Review
Based on extant research, there is evidence suggesting that schema therapy can effectively reduce psychological issues in mothers with children with special needs. For example, Hasanvand et al (2023) found that schema therapy significantly reduced initial maladaptive schemas. Utilizing schema therapy as an effective treatment approach can contribute to reducing and reconciling the initial maladaptive schemas of mothers with Intellectual Developmental Disorder children, ultimately leading to an improvement in their mental well-being and daily functioning. The research conducted by Rahat Dehmardeh et al (2021) suggests that schema therapy can be an effective method to enhance distress tolerance and resilience in mothers with children diagnosed with Intellectual Developmental Disorder. Similarly, Kivanlu et al (2022) highlight the effectiveness of group therapy based on Emotional Schema Therapy in addressing difficulties with emotional regulation faced by mothers with Intellectual Developmental Disorder children. These findings highlight the potential benefits of schema therapy-based interventions on mothers' emotional well-being.The study by Choubforush Zadeh and Mohammad Panah Ardakan (2018) revealed that schema therapy can be an effective intervention for improving mental health in mothers. The findings demonstrated that schema therapy can indeed have positive effects on maternal well-being. The study conducted by Ghale Nui (2018) examined the efficacy of schema therapy in minimizing marital conflicts and anxiety among mothers with children with down syndrome. Notably, the findings indicated that schema therapy effectively reduced both marital conflicts and anxiety levels in this specific group of mothers. In line with the findings of Shaham et al (2021), this research aligns with the notion that schema therapy training can significantly reduce parenting stress, enhance psychological toughness, and improve overall mental health in mothers with children with special needs.
Methodology
The objective of this study is clear, and its methodology employs a semi-experimental approach, specifically a pre-test and post-test design with a control group. The primary focus is to assess the effectiveness of schema therapy in alleviating symptoms of Anxiety Disorder in mothers who have children diagnosed with Intellectual Developmental Disorder. The research subject pool consisted of all the mothers with children diagnosed with Intellectual Developmental Disorder who attended one of the special education schools in Qods city during the academic year 2022-2023. Utilizing the available sampling method, a total of 30 participants were included in the study out of the overall number of intellectually impaired children. A random allocation process was implemented to divide the chosen sample of 30 participants into two groups consisting of 15 individuals each. The selection of the sample size was based on Cohen's (1986) sample size determination table, with a significance level of 0.05 and an effect size of 0.5, resulting in the required sample size of 30 individuals.
The initial procedures undertaken involved obtaining the necessary approvals and permissions from the appropriate educational authorities. Communication with school administrators was also carried out, and the significance and necessity of the research were emphasized to the members of the Association of Teachers' Parents and Students' Parents. The participants in this study were mothers who were chosen based on the presence of symptoms of Anxiety Disorder and having at least one child diagnosed with Intellectual Developmental Disorder (mild to moderate levels) in all special education schools in the city. A total of 75 women met these criteria and were included in the research. As the study required participant compliance, 45 mothers from two exceptional schools voluntarily expressed their willingness to participate. Utilizing the available sampling technique, 30 participants were chosen, who were then randomly divided into two groups of equal size, an experimental group and a control group, each consisting of 15 individuals. In the initial stage, all participants completed the Beck Anxiety questionnaire. Their pre-test scores were then recorded. Subsequently, the entire group was randomly divided into two groups of 15 participants each, resulting in an experimental and control group. In the following phase of the study, the experimental group underwent a series of 12 group schema therapy sessions held at the Quds exceptional school (Room 1). Conversely, the control group did not receive any training or treatment during this time period. Following the completion of the group therapy sessions, both groups of mothers (experimental and control) were asked to fill out the Beck Anxiety questionnaire for a second time, representing the post-test scores which were subsequently analyzed and recorded for comparison.
Results
The primary goal of this study was to assess the efficacy of schema therapy in alleviating the signs of Anxiety Disorder among mothers with children diagnosed with Intellectual Developmental Disorder. The findings indicated that schema therapy demonstrated a significant and positive impact on reducing anxiety disorder symptoms. Implementing schema therapy as a treatment approach can contribute to reducing anxiety disorder symptoms in mothers with intellectually impaired children and contribute to improved mental well-being and daily functioning.
Discussion
When examining the significant effect of schema-based therapy on the response to Anxiety Disorder in mothers with Intellectual Developmental Disorder children, the findings illustrate that individuals experiencing widespread anxiety often have a belief that their inability to control their thoughts stems solely from their own false beliefs about managing and regulating emotions. According to Qaseminezhad and Tabatabai (2023), individuals perceive their issues as inherent and beyond their ability to control, attributing their lack of emotional control to their own mental illness rather than external factors. According to the findings, these individuals find themselves trapped in a maladaptive cycle due to ineffective ways of managing emotions. However, schema therapy aims to address this issue by employing various techniques to break the cycle and create healthier coping mechanisms (Erfan et al., 2018). The study highlights the impact of anxiety symptoms and complications on individuals’ quality of life, leading to various disabilities. Therapeutic schemas help identify cognitive errors about the disease by teaching individuals to identify and address self-defeating thoughts, focusing on the relationship between behavioral responses and incorrect or ineffective beliefs about the disease and its treatment. By learning to respond differently, individuals can improve their quality of life (Mahmoudpour et al., 2020).
Conclusion
The findings of the study indicate that schema-based treatment effectively reduces the perception of illness in individuals with widespread anxiety. This is because Anxiety Disorders are developed over time, and this treatment method is fundamentally based on addressing fundamental beliefs and has the ability to alter deep-seated patterns formed over time. As a result, it is proposed to utilize this approach in psychiatric and psychological centers to treat patients with generalized anxiety disorder.
Acknowledgments
We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all the respected and highly valued mothers who took part in this research, for their support and participation. We acknowledge and appreciate their contribution to this study.
Research Paper
Esmail Khanjani; Mohammad Reza Bayat; Seyyed Mohammadreza Alavizadeh
Abstract
Abstract
This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of computer-aided cognitive rehabilitation (CACR) and virtual reality (VR)-based interventions on sensorimotor skills and working memory in children with reading difficulties. To achieve this objective, this research adopted a semi-experimental ...
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Abstract
This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of computer-aided cognitive rehabilitation (CACR) and virtual reality (VR)-based interventions on sensorimotor skills and working memory in children with reading difficulties. To achieve this objective, this research adopted a semi-experimental pre-test, follow-up, and control group design. The statistical population encompassed all students grappling with a specific learning disorder related to reading in the city of Arak for the summer of 2023. A simple random sampling method was used to randomly select 30 participants. These individuals were then allocated to three groups, including computer-assisted, virtual reality, and control groups, to undergo intervention. Kirchner's (1985) working memory task was utilized to assess their progress. Subsequently, a follow-up test was administered after three months to evaluate the participants' performance. The control group in this study did not undergo any intervention. Multivariate analysis of variance supplemented with the Benferroni test was employed to analyze the data. The results highlighted that both computer-assisted cognitive rehabilitation and virtual reality interventions significantly improved auditory and visual attention, as well as working memory, in participants from the test group. Moreover, these positive effects persisted in the follow-up evaluation conducted three months later. The findings demonstrated that the computer-assisted cognitive rehabilitation group showed superior effectiveness in both the test and follow-up stages (p=0.0001). Based on these results, it can be concluded that both treatments, with a particular emphasis on computer-assisted cognitive rehabilitation, can be employed to improve sensorimotor abilities and working memory, ultimately mitigating the severity of reading disorders.
Keywords: Computer-Assisted Cognitive Rehabilitation, Reading Learning Disorder, Sensory-Motor Benefit, Virtual Reality, Working Memory.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Specific reading disorders, commonly known as dyslexia, present a substantial neurodevelopmental challenge to children. These disorders typically involve difficulties in accurate word recognition, reading fluency, and comprehension, which subsequently lead to diminished academic performance and compromised day-to-day functioning. In addition to reading difficulties, children afflicted with learning disabilities often exhibit deficiencies in sensorimotor integration and working memory, essential elements of cognitive and academic growth. The emergence of cutting-edge technologies has ushered in novel intervention strategies, notably computer-aided cognitive rehabilitation (CACR) and virtual reality (VR)-based therapies, specifically tailored to augment these abilities. This investigation endeavors to examine the comparative efficacy of CACR and VR interventions in ameliorating sensorimotor benefits (visual and auditory attention) and working memory in children grappling with reading disabilities. The study is set in Arak, Iran, during the summer of 2023, striving to pinpoint the most effective therapeutic methods for diminishing the severity of these reading-related challenges.
Research Question
Does a substantial difference exist between the effectiveness of computer-aided cognitive rehabilitation and virtual reality-based interventions in augmenting sensorimotor benefits and working memory among children contending with reading difficulties?
Literature Review
Specific learning disorders, particularly dyslexia, exhibit persistent challenges in academic skill acquisition despite sufficient intellectual capabilities and educational prospects. In Iran, incidence rates of learning disorders vary and have been estimated at 11% for children. Notably, reading difficulties account for at least 9% of these cases. Sensorimotor integration, as posited by Ayres (1989), pertains to the brain's capacity to process sensory data efficiently for effective interaction with the environment. Notably, children grappling with learning disabilities often struggle with fine and gross motor skills, coordination, and precise temporal accuracy, indicating a link between sensorimotor functionality and learning outcomes, as suggested by various research studies. Additionally, working memory, a cognitive system for temporary storage and manipulation of information, frequently exhibits impairment among these individuals, thereby contributing to reading difficulties. Theoretical frameworks, exemplified by Piaget and Hebb, underscore the fundamental role of sensorimotor learning in cognitive development, while contemporary research highlights the significance of working memory in academic achievement. Interventions such as CACR employ structured, computer-based activities with audiovisual feedback to bolster cognitive skills, making them adaptable to individual needs and fostering neuroplasticity. In contrast, VR-based therapies immerse users in immersive 3D environments, aiming to promote motor and cognitive rehabilitation. According to prior studies, CACR can significantly improve working memory and executive functions, while VR shows potential in enhancing motor coordination and sustained attention.
Methodology
This study utilized a quasi-experimental pretest-follow-up design with a control group. The statistical population consisted of students diagnosed with reading-specific learning disorders in Arak, Iran, during the summer of 2023, with 30 participants randomly selected via simple random sampling from the Hope Learning Disorders Rehabilitation Clinic and subsequently randomly assigned to three groups: CACR (n=10), VR (n=10), and Control (n=10). For participants to be eligible, they had to meet the following criteria: a confirmed reading disorder diagnosis, willingness to participate, and absence of concurrent psychiatric conditions or medication use. The participants in the CACR group engaged in a series of 12 sessions (each session lasting 30 minutes) focused on enhancing sustained, selective, focused, and divided attention, along with working memory skills, based on a protocol adapted from Shokri et al. The VR group completed 12 sessions (each session lasting 30 minutes, twice weekly) in accordance with the protocol established by Nijman et al. (2020), emphasizing the enhancement of visual and auditory selective attention, as well as cognitive flexibility. In contrast, the control group received no intervention. Kirchner’s (1985) working memory task served as the assessment tool, with data being analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) supplemented with Bonferroni's post-hoc tests in SPSS 26.
Results
A comparative analysis revealed that both CACR and VR interventions yielded significant improvements in both auditory and visual attention and working memory in the respective experimental groups, compared to the control group. Furthermore, the positive effects persisted during the three-month follow-up period. Notably, no significant intergroup differences were observed in the baseline scores (p > 0.05). Post-intervention, the CACR group exhibited greater improvements in auditory attention (M=110.00, SD=13.27) and visual attention (M=115.80, SD=9.05) compared to the VR group (M=109.30, SD=4.64; M=113.80, SD=7.02, respectively) and control (M=75.20, SD=16.12; M=76.30, SD=12.10). Working memory scores followed a similar trend, with CACR (M=4.71, SD=0.79) outperforming VR (M=4.25, SD=0.57) and control (M=2.97, SD=0.97) in the posttest phase (p < 0.0001). Follow-up results confirmed the persistence of these gains, with CACR maintaining superior efficacy (p < 0.0001). Statistical significance was supported by MANOVA (Wilks’ Lambda, p < 0.0001) and Bonferroni tests, highlighting CACR’s greater effectiveness across all measured domains.
Table 1. Results of interventions carried out
Follow
Posttest
Source
Variable
22.29
25.96
F
Auditory Attention
0.001
0.0001
Significance
0.62
0.65
Eta
40.78
53.48
F
Visual Attention
0.0001
0.0001
Significance
0.75
0.79
Eta
9.81
12.70
F
Working Memory
0.001
0.0001
Significance
0.42
0.48
Eta
The observed outcomes suggested that both CACR and VR interventions were effective, with CACR demonstrating enhanced performance in sensorimotor benefits and working memory improvement, possibly due to the structured, feedback-driven approach inherent in CACR.
Discussion
The results of the study demonstrated that both interventions yielded significant improvements compared to the control group, with a maintenance of effects observable at the three-month follow-up (p<0.0001). Notably, CACR outshone VR in the pre-test and follow-up phases (p<0.0001), aligning with prior research emphasizing its efficacy in enhancing cognitive abilities through structured feedback (Bbrarjanian Behrnariri et al., 1400; Bavonita et al., 2015). These findings revealed that VR demonstrated potential, in alignment with studies highlighting immersive benefits (Fu & Ji, 2023). Notably, however, VR was found to be less effective than CACR (Bbrarjanian Behrnariri et al., 1400; Bavonita et al., 2015) in comparison to control group (Bbrarjanian Behrnariri et al., 1400; Bavonita et al., 2015).
Conclusion
Despite certain limitations such as a small sample size, the study substantiated CACR as a superior tool for mitigating the severity of reading disorders. Meanwhile, VR emerged as a promising emerging option requiring further investigation.
Acknowledgments
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to all the parents and participants who graciously took part in this study.
Research Paper
Bahareh Mohammadi Massiri; mansoureh boahramipourisfahani
Abstract
AbstractThe aim of the research was to assess the effectiveness of Naglieri's executive function intervention on the metacognitive skills, active memory, meta- memory, and cognitive load of students aged 10 to 12 with specific learning disabilities. The research method was quasi-experimental, employing ...
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AbstractThe aim of the research was to assess the effectiveness of Naglieri's executive function intervention on the metacognitive skills, active memory, meta- memory, and cognitive load of students aged 10 to 12 with specific learning disabilities. The research method was quasi-experimental, employing a pre-test-post-test design with a 45-day follow-up period alongside a control group. The statistical population included all 10-12-year-old students with learning disabilities in the Lordegan county during the 2021-2022 academic year. Using purposive sampling, 40 students were selected and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (20 in each group). The experimental group received 15 sessions of Naglieri's executive function intervention (2014). Research tools included the metacognitive scale by Sperling et al. (2001), active memory test by Daneman and Carpenter (1980), the Trivich multifactorial memory questionnaire (2002), the cognitive load assessment by Paas and Van Merriënboer (1993), and the fifth edition of the WISC-V (2014). Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. The results indicated that there was a significant difference between students with learning disabilities who attended the training sessions and the control group (P = 0.001). The amount of this difference in research variables in the post-test stage is equal to 0.998 and in the follow-up stage it is equal to 0.977. In other words, 99.8% of the individual differences in research variables including metacognitive skills, working memory, metamemory and cognitive load in the post-test stage and 97.7% in the follow-up stage are related to group membership or the intervention of executive functions of Nagliri.Therefore, it can be concluded that Naglieri's executive function intervention had a significant impact on the metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load of 10 to 12-year-old students with specific learning disabilities, and its effects were sustained over time. As a result, it is recommended that psychologists and counselors utilize executive function intervention strategies to enhance the metacognitive skills, active memory, matamemory, and cognitive load of students with specific learning disabilities.Keywords: Special Learning Disorder, Cognitive Load, Active Memory, Metamemory, Nagliri Executive Functions, Metacognitive Skills. Extended AbstractIntroductionLearning disability is a significant aspect of the field of education that pertains to the development of abilities such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, and arithmetic, which encompass the domain of mathematics (Flitch & Lyon, 2018). Amiri (2014) pointed out that learning disabilities can lead to academic struggles, thereby adversely impacting metacognitive skills. Metacognitive skills refer to higher-order knowledge or processes associated with the evaluation, monitoring, and control of one's own cognitive functions (Brintus & Valenzola). Research by Pass and Van Merinb (2020) has demonstrated that children with learning disabilities often exhibit memory and learning difficulties. Shvandi and Khalili (1399) have reported that the performance of extensive conservation among children with learning disabilities is generally low. Research conducted by Zhou and Ioost (2022) and Ziara (2022) confirmed a significant correlation between cognitive functions and learning. In other words, the variable of cognitive load involves the duration of processing information within active or short-term memory before encoding it for subsequent storage in long-term memory (Zhou & io Dost, 2022). In the context of psychological research, executive functions represent a set of cognitive capabilities that are crucial for the management, monitoring, and regulation of lower-level cognitive processes in order to achieve effective information processing during task execution (Gordon & Todder, 2020). Executive functions play a significant role in enhancing the ability to switch tasks (known as task-switching), updating memory, inhibiting irrelevant information, multitasking, and maintaining attention (Enricois-Gpert, Heroter & Herman, 2013).Research Question(s)The primary objective of the present study is to investigate whether the inclusion of the executive functions of the Naglieri assessment has a positive impact on the metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load of 10- to 12-year-old students with learning disorders.Literature ReviewThe literature review for this research is based on the following key references:Metacognition Scale for Children, developed by Sperling, Howard and Miller (2002), is designed for children aged 8 to 12 years old.The Cognitive Load Assessment tool, formulated by Paas and Van Merinbuer (1994).Active Memory Test by Daniman and Carpenter (1980).Multi-Factor Memory Questionnaire by Terrier and Rich (2002).Children's Intelligence Scale 5th edition (WISC-V).MethodologyThe research methodology employed in this study was of a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-intervention-retest and follow-up phase lasting 45 days, featuring a control group.ResultsThe findings of the study revealed a significant difference between students with learning disorders who participated in the training sessions and those in the control group (p = 0.001). Furthermore, the discrepancies in the research variables between the pre-test stage and the first follow-up phase amounted to 0.998, while the second follow-up phase showed a slight decrease to 0.977. This indicates that, for both the intervention group and the control group, 99.8% and 97.7% of the individual differences in the respective research variables – such as metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load – showed noticeable improvements during the first and second follow-up phases, respectively.Tablae1. Overall Results of Multi-Variable Analysis Analysis AnalysisStepsGroup effectsValueFThe degree of freedom of hypothesisThe degree of freedom of errorSignificant levelThe amountImpactPowerStatisticsAfter the testPillai's Trace0/9983196/734310/0010/9981/000Wilks' Lambda0/0023196/734310/0010/9981/000Hotelling's Trace412/483196/734310/0010/9981/000.Roy's Laragest Root 412/483196/734310/0010/9981/000followupPillai's Trace0/977322/3694310/0010/9971/000Wilks' Lambda0/023322/3694310/0010/9971/000Hotelling's Trace41/72322/3694310/0010/9971/000.Roy's Laragest Root 41/72322/3694310/0010/9971/000DiscussionThe research findings are in line with the positive effects of Naglieri's executive function intervention on metacognitive skills, corroborating previous studies by Kubota et al. (2023) and Khodari et al. (2022). According to the aforementioned account, it can be asserted that instructing students on specific abilities such as maintaining composure, thoughtfully considering their responses, observing turn-taking norms, exhibiting patience, actively focusing on diverse contextual elements, being responsible and vigilant, paying heed to visual cues, employing visualization techniques, refining perception, allocating one's attention, engaging in organized game activities, attentively listening to others, adhering to guidelines, structuring tasks, and continuously exercising mental awareness can lead to the improvement of response control in these students.Interventions targeting the improvement of executive functions have been found to augment brain activity in the prefrontal cortex (Sardari, 2014). As evidenced by Effendi (2017), enhanced executive functioning correlates with heightened cognitive abilities, which subsequently leads to an enhancement in learning capabilities within the domain of metacognitive skills. The findings of the current study corroborate the positive impact of Naglieri's executive function intervention on active memory, consistent with the outcomes reported by previous researchers, such as those reported by liberation, nia and Rezao (2022) and Narimani et al. (2012). Based on the presented findings, it can be asserted that the teaching of executive functions plays a crucial role in the management and direction of academic behavior and success (Buck, 2014) as it equips students with the ability to initiate and complete tasks while persevering through challenges (Divin, 2014). By honing executive function skills, students can significantly bolster their active memory performance by employing techniques such as chunking, or breaking down larger information blocks into more manageable units. This process occurs through targeted practice and repetition, thereby transforming information processing into an automatic and efficient routine (liberation, nia & Rezao, 2022).The current research findings are congruent with the positive effects of Naglieri's executive function intervention on long-term memory, aligning with earlier studies conducted by Mouti and Omar (2020) and Shvandi and Khalili (2019). According to these findings, the dominance of certain executive functions, such as attention, language, spatial processing, and memory, is essential in explaining these outcomes. These skills are developed through experience, education, and learning, and the training of executive functions, with their impact on brain hemisphere activity, enhances cognitive performance. This relationship implies that cognitive executive functions act as a necessary resource for active memory utilization in specific educational activities or learning tasks, and according to the underlying theory, learning can be negatively impacted when the active memory capacity is not sufficient to support effective task completion. The cognitive theory contends that numerous conventional educational methods overlook the limitations of human cognition by placing undue burden on the learner's active memory. To rectify this, the theory advocates for the careful selection of educational methods, taking into account active memory constraints and emphasizing the necessity of aligning educational techniques with foundational principles of the human cognitive system (Gharbi et al., 2010).ConclusionGiven the findings of this research, it is recommended that psychologists and counselors should integrate executive function intervention methods as a means to improve the metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load of students with specific learning disabilities.Conflict of interestIn the conduct of this study, there was no conflict of interest. The researcher would like to express gratitude to all the 10-12-year-old students with learning disorders from Lordegan County who contributed to the research.AbstractThe aim of the research was to assess the effectiveness of Naglieri's executive function intervention on the metacognitive skills, active memory, meta- memory, and cognitive load of students aged 10 to 12 with specific learning disabilities. The research method was quasi-experimental, employing a pre-test-post-test design with a 45-day follow-up period alongside a control group. The statistical population included all 10-12-year-old students with learning disabilities in the Lordegan county during the 2021-2022 academic year. Using purposive sampling, 40 students were selected and randomly assigned to experimental and control groups (20 in each group). The experimental group received 15 sessions of Naglieri's executive function intervention (2014). Research tools included the metacognitive scale by Sperling et al. (2001), active memory test by Daneman and Carpenter (1980), the Trivich multifactorial memory questionnaire (2002), the cognitive load assessment by Paas and Van Merriënboer (1993), and the fifth edition of the WISC-V (2014). Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA. The results indicated that there was a significant difference between students with learning disabilities who attended the training sessions and the control group (P = 0.001). The amount of this difference in research variables in the post-test stage is equal to 0.998 and in the follow-up stage it is equal to 0.977. In other words, 99.8% of the individual differences in research variables including metacognitive skills, working memory, metamemory and cognitive load in the post-test stage and 97.7% in the follow-up stage are related to group membership or the intervention of executive functions of Nagliri.Therefore, it can be concluded that Naglieri's executive function intervention had a significant impact on the metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load of 10 to 12-year-old students with specific learning disabilities, and its effects were sustained over time. As a result, it is recommended that psychologists and counselors utilize executive function intervention strategies to enhance the metacognitive skills, active memory, matamemory, and cognitive load of students with specific learning disabilities.Keywords: Special Learning Disorder, Cognitive Load, Active Memory, Metamemory, Nagliri Executive Functions, Metacognitive Skills. Extended AbstractIntroductionLearning disability is a significant aspect of the field of education that pertains to the development of abilities such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, and arithmetic, which encompass the domain of mathematics (Flitch & Lyon, 2018). Amiri (2014) pointed out that learning disabilities can lead to academic struggles, thereby adversely impacting metacognitive skills. Metacognitive skills refer to higher-order knowledge or processes associated with the evaluation, monitoring, and control of one's own cognitive functions (Brintus & Valenzola). Research by Pass and Van Merinb (2020) has demonstrated that children with learning disabilities often exhibit memory and learning difficulties. Shvandi and Khalili (1399) have reported that the performance of extensive conservation among children with learning disabilities is generally low. Research conducted by Zhou and Ioost (2022) and Ziara (2022) confirmed a significant correlation between cognitive functions and learning. In other words, the variable of cognitive load involves the duration of processing information within active or short-term memory before encoding it for subsequent storage in long-term memory (Zhou & io Dost, 2022). In the context of psychological research, executive functions represent a set of cognitive capabilities that are crucial for the management, monitoring, and regulation of lower-level cognitive processes in order to achieve effective information processing during task execution (Gordon & Todder, 2020). Executive functions play a significant role in enhancing the ability to switch tasks (known as task-switching), updating memory, inhibiting irrelevant information, multitasking, and maintaining attention (Enricois-Gpert, Heroter & Herman, 2013).Research Question(s)The primary objective of the present study is to investigate whether the inclusion of the executive functions of the Naglieri assessment has a positive impact on the metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load of 10- to 12-year-old students with learning disorders.Literature ReviewThe literature review for this research is based on the following key references:Metacognition Scale for Children, developed by Sperling, Howard and Miller (2002), is designed for children aged 8 to 12 years old.The Cognitive Load Assessment tool, formulated by Paas and Van Merinbuer (1994).Active Memory Test by Daniman and Carpenter (1980).Multi-Factor Memory Questionnaire by Terrier and Rich (2002).Children's Intelligence Scale 5th edition (WISC-V).MethodologyThe research methodology employed in this study was of a quasi-experimental design with a pretest-intervention-retest and follow-up phase lasting 45 days, featuring a control group.ResultsThe findings of the study revealed a significant difference between students with learning disorders who participated in the training sessions and those in the control group (p = 0.001). Furthermore, the discrepancies in the research variables between the pre-test stage and the first follow-up phase amounted to 0.998, while the second follow-up phase showed a slight decrease to 0.977. This indicates that, for both the intervention group and the control group, 99.8% and 97.7% of the individual differences in the respective research variables – such as metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load – showed noticeable improvements during the first and second follow-up phases, respectively.Tablae1. Overall Results of Multi-Variable Analysis Analysis AnalysisStepsGroup effectsValueFThe degree of freedom of hypothesisThe degree of freedom of errorSignificant levelThe amountImpactPowerStatisticsAfter the testPillai's Trace0/9983196/734310/0010/9981/000Wilks' Lambda0/0023196/734310/0010/9981/000Hotelling's Trace412/483196/734310/0010/9981/000.Roy's Laragest Root 412/483196/734310/0010/9981/000followupPillai's Trace0/977322/3694310/0010/9971/000Wilks' Lambda0/023322/3694310/0010/9971/000Hotelling's Trace41/72322/3694310/0010/9971/000.Roy's Laragest Root 41/72322/3694310/0010/9971/000DiscussionThe research findings are in line with the positive effects of Naglieri's executive function intervention on metacognitive skills, corroborating previous studies by Kubota et al. (2023) and Khodari et al. (2022). According to the aforementioned account, it can be asserted that instructing students on specific abilities such as maintaining composure, thoughtfully considering their responses, observing turn-taking norms, exhibiting patience, actively focusing on diverse contextual elements, being responsible and vigilant, paying heed to visual cues, employing visualization techniques, refining perception, allocating one's attention, engaging in organized game activities, attentively listening to others, adhering to guidelines, structuring tasks, and continuously exercising mental awareness can lead to the improvement of response control in these students.Interventions targeting the improvement of executive functions have been found to augment brain activity in the prefrontal cortex (Sardari, 2014). As evidenced by Effendi (2017), enhanced executive functioning correlates with heightened cognitive abilities, which subsequently leads to an enhancement in learning capabilities within the domain of metacognitive skills. The findings of the current study corroborate the positive impact of Naglieri's executive function intervention on active memory, consistent with the outcomes reported by previous researchers, such as those reported by liberation, nia and Rezao (2022) and Narimani et al. (2012). Based on the presented findings, it can be asserted that the teaching of executive functions plays a crucial role in the management and direction of academic behavior and success (Buck, 2014) as it equips students with the ability to initiate and complete tasks while persevering through challenges (Divin, 2014). By honing executive function skills, students can significantly bolster their active memory performance by employing techniques such as chunking, or breaking down larger information blocks into more manageable units. This process occurs through targeted practice and repetition, thereby transforming information processing into an automatic and efficient routine (liberation, nia & Rezao, 2022).The current research findings are congruent with the positive effects of Naglieri's executive function intervention on long-term memory, aligning with earlier studies conducted by Mouti and Omar (2020) and Shvandi and Khalili (2019). According to these findings, the dominance of certain executive functions, such as attention, language, spatial processing, and memory, is essential in explaining these outcomes. These skills are developed through experience, education, and learning, and the training of executive functions, with their impact on brain hemisphere activity, enhances cognitive performance. This relationship implies that cognitive executive functions act as a necessary resource for active memory utilization in specific educational activities or learning tasks, and according to the underlying theory, learning can be negatively impacted when the active memory capacity is not sufficient to support effective task completion. The cognitive theory contends that numerous conventional educational methods overlook the limitations of human cognition by placing undue burden on the learner's active memory. To rectify this, the theory advocates for the careful selection of educational methods, taking into account active memory constraints and emphasizing the necessity of aligning educational techniques with foundational principles of the human cognitive system (Gharbi et al., 2010).ConclusionGiven the findings of this research, it is recommended that psychologists and counselors should integrate executive function intervention methods as a means to improve the metacognitive skills, active memory, long-term memory, and cognitive load of students with specific learning disabilities.Conflict of interestIn the conduct of this study, there was no conflict of interest. The researcher would like to express gratitude to all the 10-12-year-old students with learning disorders from Lordegan County who contributed to the research.
Research Paper
Masumeh Tayebli; usef jalali
Abstract
Abstract
The primary goal of this research study is to determine the effectiveness of a group-play-based educational program on improving theory of mind and self-esteem in children diagnosed with mild intellectual disability. Theory of mind difficulties are a fundamental deficit among individuals with ...
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Abstract
The primary goal of this research study is to determine the effectiveness of a group-play-based educational program on improving theory of mind and self-esteem in children diagnosed with mild intellectual disability. Theory of mind difficulties are a fundamental deficit among individuals with intellectual disabilities, significantly impacting various aspects of their functioning. The design of an educational program based on group play activities aims to address this issue and enhance the participants' self-esteem. For the study, semi-experimental research design that included a pre-test and post-test, along with a control group and a follow-up test was implemented. The research population comprised all students with mild intellectual disabilities in the second year of primary school who were attending exceptional schools in the city of Tehran during the academic year 2022-2023. A total of 28 male students were selected for this study through convenience sampling, constituting the research sample. They were subsequently divided into experimental and control groups. The tools utilized in this study included the Theory of Mind test developed by Steerneman (1999) and the Self-Esteem Scale created by Rosenberg (1965). The intervention program, consisting of 24 sessions lasting 90 minutes each, was implemented on the experimental group. In addition, a follow-up session was conducted two months after the completion of the sessions. The results demonstrated that the educational program had good validity and reliability, as assessed through a repeated measures analysis of variance. The findings of this research underscore the effectiveness of the educational program in improving both theory of mind and self-esteem in children with mild intellectual disabilities. The positive effects observed were statistically significant, as indicated by a p-value of less than 0.001, and they were found to be sustainable even after a two-month follow-up period. The plays developed by this educational program can be effectively utilized by parents, teachers, psychologists, and rehabilitative centers to support and support the development of theory of mind and self-esteem in individuals with mild intellectual disabilities.
Keywords: Play, Self-esteem, Intellectual Disability, Theory of Mind.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Intellectual disability, particularly in its mild form, can present unique challenges for individuals in navigating social interactions and communication, often resulting in lower levels of self-esteem and heightened feelings of isolation. Theory of Mind (ToM) is a crucial cognitive skill which significantly contributes to social and emotional development. It has been well-established that deficits in Theory of Mind (ToM) can hinder social interactions and potentially contribute to emotional and behavioral disturbances. Group play is widely acknowledged as an effective educational approach to address these challenges and improve ToM and self-esteem in individuals with mild intellectual disabilities. This study sought to design and evaluate an educational program centered around group plays, aiming to enhance ToM and self-esteem in children with mild intellectual disabilities.
Research Questions
Does the group play-based educational program significantly improve Theory of Mind (ToM) in children with Mild Intellectual Disability (MID)?
Can this group play-based educational program enhance the self-esteem of these children?
Are the effects of the educational program sustained over time (after two months)?
Literature Review
Intellectual disability is a multifaceted condition that impacts cognitive functioning and the capacity for social interaction. One significant aspect of this disorder is the impairment of Theory of Mind (ToM), which pertains to an individual’s ability to recognize that other individuals have unique thoughts, emotions, and beliefs that guide their actions (Astington, 1993)
Research has previously shown that children with stronger Theory of Mind (ToM) capabilities tend to develop better social relationships, while simultaneously exhibiting higher levels of self-esteem (Perner et al., 1989). Furthermore, inadequate ToM abilities can result in inadequate communication skills, lowered self-confidence, and heightened social anxiety (Doherty, 2008).
Play is regarded as a valuable tool in improving both social and cognitive abilities. Studies have demonstrated that group play can be particularly beneficial, as children engage in social interactions that aid in the development of empathy, understanding of emotions, and improvement in perspective-taking (Hamm, 2006).
The act of pretend play and role-playing stimulates children to adopt different perspectives, fostering the development of Theory of Mind (Leslie, 1987; Lin et al., 2017). Furthermore, success in group activities can elicit positive feedback, ultimately bolstering childrens' self-esteem (Johar, Ishak, & Zainuddin, 2013).
Methodology
For the purpose of this research, a quasi-experimental study employing a pre-test and a follow-up test, alongside a control group, was implemented. The research aimed to investigate whether the educational program of this study, based on group plays, is effective in improving ToM (Theory of Mind) and self-esteem in children with mild intellectual disability (MID).
In this research, a convenience sampling method was utilized to select a total of 28 male students who were diagnosed with mild to moderate intellectual disabilities. These individuals were then randomly assigned to two groups, with 14 participants assigned to the experimental group and the remaining 14 participants constituting the control group. For the assessment of theory of mind and self-esteem, two instruments were utilized: The Theory of Mind Test developed by Steerneman (1999) and the Self-Esteem Scale devised by Rosenberg (1965). Additionally, the educational program consisted of 24 sessions (each lasting 90 minutes) of group play activities, exclusively for the experimental group. The effectiveness of the program was assessed through the application of the Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistical technique.
Results
The outcome of the research demonstrated that the educational program significantly enhanced both Theory of Mind (ToM) and self-esteem in children with Mild Intellectual Disability (MID) (P<0.001). The comparison of the mean scores for both ToM and self-esteem showed significant increases from pre-test to end, as well as between the pre-test and follow-up stages. Furthermore, no significant alterations were observed within the control group.
Discussion
The study results demonstrated that group play-based interventions proved effective in enhancing ToM and self-esteem in children with MID. These results aligned with previous research emphasizing the significance of social interactions and pretend play in cognitive and emotional development. The studies conducted by Ghasemi (2017) and Lin et al. (2017) further reinforce the idea that interactive and pretense play significantly enhances social functionality and self-esteem. This new study emphasized the importance of using structured play-based programs as a prominent intervention technique in special education and rehabilitation contexts.
Conclusion
The research results have indicated that the implementation of a group-play based educational program resulted in significant improvements in both ToM and self-esteem in children with MID. Furthermore, it was observed that these positive changes remained consistent over time, which implies the potential long-term benefits of this program.
Acknowledgments
The authors are deeply grateful for the valuable contributions made by the teachers, students, and parents who participated in this research study.
Research Paper
reza tarkhan; Hashemi Zahra
Abstract
The study employed a descriptive-correlational design and aimed to explore the mediating role of positive parenting in the linkage between parental resilience (of caregivers) and the quality of life (of children) in contexts of learning-disability situations. The research involved all elementary school ...
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The study employed a descriptive-correlational design and aimed to explore the mediating role of positive parenting in the linkage between parental resilience (of caregivers) and the quality of life (of children) in contexts of learning-disability situations. The research involved all elementary school learners in the academic year 1996 to 1997 from counseling centers for learning disabilities within the city limits of Tehran, leading to a total of 150 participants which included 70 females and 80 males. The measurement tools employed in this study included the Academic Resilience Questionnaire, developed by Suzuki et al. (2015), the Quality of Life of Children Assessment, developed by Petri, Miss and Velascamp (2009) and the Positive Parenting questionnaire created by Lagar et al. (2006). The results reveal a good fit between the data and the research model. The results indicate that parental resilience has both a direct impact on the prevalence of positive parenting and a direct influence on the quality of life of children with learning disabilities. Through the mediation of positive parenting, the indirect impact of parental resilience on the quality of life of children is also notable. Thus, it is evident that parental resilience exerts diverse influences on the quality of life of children with learning disabilities, both directly and indirectly through positive parenting. The research findings suggest that positive parental perceptions play a crucial role in enabling parents to adopt constructive approaches to dealing with challenges associated with their children. Furthermore, positive perceptions can enhance the ability of parents to engage in positive parenting strategies, such as offering encouragement, accepting personal shortcomings, and reinforcing talents. To enhance the quality of life of children with learning disabilities, educational institutions can play a key role in promoting resilience and positive parenting.
Keywords: Parental Resilience, Positive Parenting, Quality of Life, Learning Disabilities.
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Learning disabilities are common developmental disorders in childhood, characterized by deficits in foundational processes that hamper language comprehension or utilization (Chiarenza, 2021). These difficulties may manifest in various forms, including challenges with listening, thinking, speaking, reading or writing, calculating or spelling (Filippello, Bazaev, Messina, Mafodda & Sorrenti, 2020). For parents, the prospect of a learning disability diagnosis for their child can prove challenging, often leaving them with questions about their child's future and educational prospects. Concerns may arise regarding potential stigma and the labeling of their child as "slow" or being relegated to special education programs (Mansson, Frick, Bråsbeck, Marquand, Williams & Kallerbring, 2015).
Alongside the burden of coping with stress, acquiring sufficient resources, and maintaining high-quality parenting, parents of children with learning disabilities face additional challenges (Beckett, Johnson, Jozinski, 2012; Gavidla, Payne, Denny, Davis, Frankel, and Jackson, 2015; Jones & Passy, 2004). Prior studies have demonstrated that parents of children with learning disabilities encounter higher levels of stress and face greater challenges due to a greater occurrence of negative scenarios compared to parents of typically developing children (Gupta, 2007; Mokhtar, Kyomara, Hesjarjo & Adiyanti, 2018; Suzuki, Kobayashi, Moriyama, Kaja & Anagaki, 2013).
Research Question(s)
As a result, this study aims to investigate the association between parental resilience, positive parenting, and the quality of life in families of children with learning disabilities. It is hypothesized that parenting skills (positive parenting) serve as a mediating factor within the link between parental resilience and their children's quality of life.
Literature Review
Research has indicated that parents of children with learning disabilities, by understanding their parenting abilities, are able to perceive challenges in a more favorable light (Suzuki et al. 2015). Such parents are capable of accepting their child's condition and coming to terms with the implications associated with raising a child with a learning disability (Hastings & Taunt, 2002; Plumb, 2011; Suzuki et al., 2015). Evidence suggests that these processes are connected to enhanced acceptance levels and improved coping techniques among parents (Hastings & Taunt, 2002; Plumb, 2011; Suzuki et al., 2015).
Parenting comprises parents' attitudes and actions in rearing a child (Venuti, Aztark, & Riccadonna, 2014). Numerous studies have shown that positive parenting (e.g., encouraging and praising children) has a positive influence on children's quality of life (Gavidia-Payne et al., 2015; Sangawi, Adams, & Reissland, 2018). Resilient parents respond more positively to challenging situations (Olson & Diefreen, 2003), and parents with higher resilience possess enhanced abilities to manage stress and cope with their children's challenging behaviors (Harrison & Sofronoff, 2002). Such capabilities contribute to improved parenting skills, which subsequently have a positive impact on children's quality of life (Ellis & Nigg, 2009; Pinquart, 2017).
However, research in this domain remains limited, with few empirical studies particularly delving into the aspects of parental resilience amongst families of children with learning disabilities and the influence of positive parenting on their children's quality of life. It is also worthy of noting that the majority of research in this field has predominantly centered on Western cultures, the investigation of the relationship between parental resilience, parenting, and the quality of life of children with learning disabilities in non-Western cultures, such as Iran, has not received commensurate attention.
The current research is noteworthy as studies comparing non-Western and Western cultures have consistently highlighted considerable disparities in parenting practices. Belsky (1984) and Bornstein (2012) emphasized the importance of culture and social context in understanding parenting and parent-child relationships (Belsky, 1984; Bornstein, 2012). Additionally, cross-cultural disparities are evident in relation to how parents perceive challenging situations, as well as how external factors influence resilience and children's quality of life (Garcia-Dia, DiNapoli, Garcia-Ona, Jakubowski, & O'Flaherty, 2013).
Methodology
This study utilized a correlational research design to examine the relationships between the study variables using structural equation modeling. The statistical population consisted of all families in Tehran with at least one child identified with specific learning disorders during the 2017-2018 academic year by counseling centers in the area due to academic and learning difficulties. The sample size of 150 participants was selected from the population of students with learning disabilities, who were diagnosed based on psychiatric evaluations and intelligence assessments using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV). In this study, the following instruments were utilized to collect data on the study variables: Parental Resilience, Children’s Quality of Life, and Positive Parenting.
Results
The results of this study are presented in two sections. The first section contains descriptive findings, such as mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis indices. The second section includes the correlation matrix and the outcomes of structural equation modeling analysis using LISREL software, accompanied by the path diagram. Prior to performing the data analysis, several key assumptions underlying structural equation modeling were examined to ensure that the data met the necessary requirements. These included: assessing missing data, examining the distribution for normality and checking for multicollinearity.
a) Handling missing data: In this study, while all efforts were made to collect complete data from the participants, some missing data were found in the dataset. In order to address this issue, the mean values of the respective variables were used to substitute for the absent data.
b) Dealing with outliers: To identify the presence of outliers in the data, the Explore function in SPSS was used. Upon examining the results, no outliers were observed in any of the study variables, thereby confirming that structural equation modeling analysis could proceed without any issues.
c) Examine normality: To assess the assumption of normality, skewness and kurtosis indices were measured. The results indicated that the distribution of the data adheres to the normality assumption, allowing for the use of structural equation modeling (SEM). Overall, the findings confirmed that all fundamental requirements for structural equation modeling were met, without any barriers to conducting this analysis.
In this study, potential multi-collinearity amongst predictor variables was assessed using the tolerance statistic and the variance inflation factor (VIF). The results revealed that tolerance values for all variables surpassed 0.10, indicating no multi-collinearity issues. Furthermore, the VIF values for all variables remained below 10, further confirming the absence of multi-collinearity. In the next section, the correlation matrix among the examined variables is presented. This correlation matrix serves as a foundation for conducting causal model analyses.
Table 2. Correlation Matrix of Research Variables
Variables
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Material Well-being
1
Communication
**51/0
1
Emotional-Social Well-being
**52/0
**71/0
1
Growth and Development
**79/0
**68/0
**66/0
1
Activity Time
**38/0
**36/0
**46/0
**53/0
1
Positive Parenting
**25/0
**23/0
**34/0
**48/0
**60/0
1
Awareness of Child’s Characteristics
**24/0
**21/0
**37/0
*42/0
**80/0
**70/0
1
Perceived Social Support
**46/0
**36/0
**38/0
**36/0
**32/0
**35/0
**33/0
1
Positive Perception of Parenting
**37/0
**29/0
**28/0
**28/0
**31/0
**27/0
**26/0
**46/0
From the table provided, it is clear that the components of parental resilience exhibit a positive and significant correlation with both positive parenting and the components of quality of life. Additionally, a positive and significant correlation can be observed between positive parenting and adaptation to the components of quality of life.
Table 3. Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects of Model Variables
Path
Direct Effect
Indirect Effect
Total Effect
β
p
β
p
β
p
From Parental Resilience to Positive Parenting
44/0
001/0
---
---
56/0
001/0
From Parental Resilience to Quality of Life
47/0
001/0
---
---
44/0
001/0
From Positive Parenting to Quality of Life
40/0
001/0
20/0
002/0
60/0
002/0
Based on the tested model and the results provided in Table 3, all research hypotheses were confirmed. As indicated in Table 3 and the path coefficients in the diagram, the direct effects of parental resilience on positive parenting and parental resilience on children's quality of life remain positive and significant. Furthermore, the path from positive parenting to quality of life has also been found to be positive and significant.
Additionally, the findings suggest that parental resilience exerts a significant and indirect influence on children's quality of life via positive parenting, as demonstrated by the results presented in Table 3 and the diagram. Overall, the findings indicate that parental resilience exerts both direct and indirect impacts on the quality of life of children with learning disabilities, as mediated through positive parenting behaviors.
Regarding model fit indices:
Chi-square divided by degrees of freedom (X²/df) = 0.58,
Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = above 0.45, indicating the model’s ability to deviate from an independent model and approach a saturated model according to defined criteria.
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.028.
Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), and Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI) were **0.92, 0.94, and 0
Discussion
The present study set out to establish the mediating role of positive parenting in the relationship between parental resilience and children's quality of life. Initially, Pearson correlation coefficients were computed to examine the associations among resilience, positive parenting, and quality of life. The results revealed a significant correlation between parental resilience and both positive parenting and quality of life. To further explore the relationship between aspects of resilience and children's quality of life, LISREL software was utilized to examine whether parental resilience influences quality of life directly and indirectly, mediated through positive parenting. Positive parenting, in turn, is associated with increased instances of parental encouragement and praise, which can have a positive impact on children's quality of life (Aran, Shalev, Biran, & Gross-Tsur, 2007; Daiches et al., 2012; Ellis & Nigg, 2009; Raya et al., 2013; Sangawi et al., 2018).
Conclusion (Times New Roman 12 bold)
The results highlight the crucial mediating role of positive parenting in the relationship between parental resilience and children's quality of life, emphasizing the significant influence of parents' positive attitudes toward parenting on their children's well-being. It's important to note that certain limitations were associated with the study. The study had certain limitations, including the lack of representation from all regions of Iran, as it only examined families that brought their children to schools or treatment centers. Additionally, it did not include families that did not enroll their children in these institutions, limiting the generalization of the findings on Iranian parents of children with learning disabilities.
Future researchers are encouraged to delve deeper into the connection between parental stress and a variety of positive parenting facets, with a focus on parenting flexibility. Investigations have demonstrated that flexibly parenting parents tend to be more adept at managing stress and coping with challenges, ultimately resulting in positive outcomes in the family context (Gavidia-Payne et al., 2015; Harper & Brown, 2014; Hess et al., 2002). Furthermore, studies have revealed that positive parenting styles contribute to heightened self-perception and enhanced social aptitude among children (Gavidia-Payne et al., 2015; Harper & Brown, 2014; Hess et al., 2002). It is essential for future research to take parental stress into account as a prominent influencing factor, thereby fostering a more comprehensive comprehension of parental resilience, which facilitates adaptation to difficult situations.
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