Research Paper
fatemeh asvadzadeh; sahar safarzadeh; Rezvan Homaei
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Among physical disabilities, vision problems (low vision or blindness) are one of the most important sensory defects that, due to the role of vision in understanding environmental information and learning, confront the affected people with many problems. Therefore, the aim of the present study ...
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ABSTRACT
Among physical disabilities, vision problems (low vision or blindness) are one of the most important sensory defects that, due to the role of vision in understanding environmental information and learning, confront the affected people with many problems. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the role of ego strength and thematic relationships in predicting the quality of life of blind and visually impaired students: the mediating role of the sense of agency. The current research was a correlational study. The statistical population of the present study includes all blind and partially sighted people between the ages of 12 and 35 who were members of the Blind Association of Khuzestan province in 1401, who had a university education (associate to doctorate). The research tools included the Quality of Life Questionnaire for the Blind and Visually Impaired (2000), the Questionnaire for the Quality of Subjective Relationships (1985), the Ego Strength Questionnaire (2003), and the Sense of Agency Questionnaire for Visually Impaired People (2016). Structural equation modeling was used for data analysis. The results showed that the proposed research model had a good fit. The indirect path between ego strength and quality of life (P=0.001) is positive and significant. It can be concluded that the sense of agency mediates the relationship between the quality of subject relationships and the quality of life of blind and low-vision students in a negative way, and the relationship between ego strength and their quality of life in a positive and meaningful way.
Keywords: Ego strength, quality of life, quality of subject relationships, sense of agency
Cite this Article: Asvadzadeh, F., Safarzadeh, S., & Homaei, R. (2025). The Role of Ego Strength and Thematic Relationships in Predicting the Quality of Life of Visually Impaired and Blind Students: The Mediating Role of Sense of Agency. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.22054/JPE.2026.73875.2582
© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Publisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Blindness is a disability that creates a feeling of insecurity and failure in a person, and by increasing nervous pressure, it can affect the psychological balance and general organization of the personality. Blindness by itself does not destroy the organization and personality of the blind person, but the attitude of the blind person can affect the organization of his personality. The importance of quality of life in visually impaired and blind people and how it is related to vision loss has a negative effect on quality of life, according to the results of most articles. Vision is a key factor for mental health. A person who is visually impaired has difficulty in doing their daily tasks and sometimes becomes dependent on others for the simplest tasks. This dependency can lower the self-confidence of the visually impaired person and cause dissatisfaction with life and increase the incidence of depression.
Research Question
Does ego strength, the quality of subject relationships, with the mediation of sense of agency, have a direct or indirect effect on the quality of life of blind and partially sighted students in Khuzestan province?
Literature Review
In general, despite the proximity of the concept of quality of life with inner strength and spirituality and sense of agency (Lewis, Roux, 2011), and their relationship with other components such as self-acceptance (Vasil, 2013), thematic relationships (Kernberg, 2006) and performance Family (Farrell et al., 2018) it seems that no specific modeling research has been done on the relationship between components and quality of life in the disabled group, especially the blind and visually impaired. According to the above content and taking into account that blindness and low vision are among the factors that can limit a person in various fields and daily activities, despite having many abilities, and as a result, a person from the society and the people around him distance himself and feel weak in his abilities and talents, therefore, having a strong ego that has the ability to solve problems and can fight or adapt to the problems and challenges ahead is very important. In today's world, if we want to have blind people with the ability to show talent, their abilities should be looked at positively and scientific ways should be suggested in the field of empowering them, hence the test of the quality of life model based on unconditional self-acceptance. The strength of ego, the quality of subject relationships, the attitude to time and the hope of employment by mediating the sense of agency in the blind and visually impaired students of Khuzestan province are necessary and important.
Methodology
In terms of the descriptive method, the current research is of the correlation type, which was carried out in the form of a structural equation model. The statistical population of the research included all blind and partially sighted people between the ages of 21 and 35 who were members of the blind association of Khuzestan province in 2022, who had a university education (associate to doctorate). The sample size was calculated based on the number of research variables and the statistical model of path analysis, according to the number of direct paths, the number of exogenous variables, and the number of error variances, the number of parameters was calculated, the number of variables in total is suitable for a sample size of 160 people, which is suitable for preventing distortion. Due to possible attrition of the subjects, the sample number was 233. The sampling method of the research was purposeful in such a way that the criteria for entering the research included satisfaction with participation in the research, diagnosis of visual impairment in rehabilitation centers and through a doctor, age between 22 and 35 years, the minimum level of education was associate's degree and lack of employment, and the exit criteria included lack of satisfaction with the continuation of cooperation and failure to complete the questionnaires or distortion of the answer sheet. The research tools included the Quality of Life Questionnaire for the Blind and Visually Impaired (2000), the Questionnaire for the Quality of Subjective Relationships (1985), the Ego Strength Questionnaire (2003), and the Sense of Agency Questionnaire for Visually Impaired People (2016). Structural equation modeling was used for data analysis.
Results
The total path coefficient between ego strength and quality of life (P=0.001, β=0.420) is positive and significant. The total path coefficient between the quality of subject relationships and quality of life (P=0.001, β=0.361) was negative and significant. The path coefficient between sense of agency and quality of life (P=0.001, β=0.449) was also positive and significant. Table 4 shows that the indirect path coefficient between ego strength and quality of life (β=0.123, P=0.001) is positive and the indirect path coefficient between the quality of subject relationships and quality of life (P=0.001, 189 β = -0) is negative and significant. Based on this, it was concluded that the sense of agency mediates the relationship between the quality of subject relationships and the quality of life of the blind and visually impaired students in a negative way and the relationship between ego strength and their quality of life in a positive and meaningful way. The sum of squared multiple correlations (R2) for the quality of life variable is equal to 0.53, which indicates that the strength of ego, the quality of subject relations and the sense of agency explain a total of 53% of the variance of the quality of life of the blind and visually impaired students.
Discussion
Unfortunately, in Iranian society, official social support for the disabled is very weak, so efforts should be made to maintain informal social support. One of the important sources of informal social support is the family. Family members should feel responsible for the disabled person in the family. In the next step, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that people usually have more in common with their friends and understand each other better, and this causes emotional and psychological support for disabled people.
Conclusion
In the discussion of research proposals, it is possible to mention the design and standardization of measuring instruments for people with visual impairments, the design and drafting and execution of contracts, especially for people with visual impairments. It seems necessary for the officials and planners of the health system to include specialized universal training with mindfulness and focused on the present, with the aim of increasing "unconditional self-acceptance" in people; considering the importance of the role of the sense of agency in predicting resistance to life's problems, teaching skills that strengthen the sense of agency and emotion management as an important and key factor in creating motivation, along with other educational methods, is suggested to people.
Ethical Considerations
Adherence to Research Ethics Principles
The authors have observed all ethical principles in conducting and publishing this scientific research, and this is confirmed by all of them.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed equally to the conceptualization of the article and the writing of the original and subsequent drafts.
Conflict of Interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
Funding
This article was conducted independently by the authors without any financial support.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their deepest gratitude to all the participants who contributed to the success of this research.
Research Paper
farzad malki; faezaneh torabi; Ahad Musapour; majid mohammadi
Abstract
ABSTRACTChildren with autism have low levels of cognitive function. Since physical activity has positive effects on cognition and well-being, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of intervention based on open and closed motor skills on the sustained and selective attention of high-functioning ...
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ABSTRACTChildren with autism have low levels of cognitive function. Since physical activity has positive effects on cognition and well-being, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of intervention based on open and closed motor skills on the sustained and selective attention of high-functioning autistic children in a study with a one-month follow-up. For this purpose, 45 children with high-functioning autism, aged 8 to 10 years, were selected from Tehran and, after completing a pre-test (continuous performance test and Stroop word color test), were randomly classified into three open, closed motor skills intervention and control groups. Experimental groups performed the desired training program for 12 sessions and 60 minutes each session, during which the control group performed their daily activities. Finally, after the last post-test training session and 24 hours after the post-test, a note was made, and the results were recorded. The results of the combined analysis of variance test showed that the effect of open and closed skills training on stable (p=0.001) and selective (p=0.001) attention of participants was significant. In addition, in pairwise comparison, the results showed that in the follow-up (p=0.001) and post-test (p=0.001), the performance of the open skills training group was significantly higher than the closed and control skills training group. According to the findings, it seems that the use of open and closed motor skills training can be a useful intervention for the attention processes of children with autism spectrum disorders.Keywords: Open and closed motor skills, selective attention, sustained attention, children with autismCite this Article: Maleki, F., Torabi, F., Moosapoor, A., & Mohammadi, M. (2025). The Effect of Intervention based on Open and Closed Motor Skills on Sustained and Selective Attention of High-Functioning Autistic Children: a Study with a One-Month Follow-Up. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 31-56. https://doi.org/10.22054/JPE.2026.75746.2616© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University PressPublisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press Extended AbstractIntroductionAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) results from structural and functional abnormalities in various brain regions and is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, stereotyped behaviors, language delays, and cognitive deficits (Qureshi et al., 2021). Its prevalence is steadily increasing, with global statistics showing that one in every 59 births is affected by autism (Hyman, Levy, & Myers, 2020).The complexity of ASD challenges has driven researchers across disciplines to seek effective treatments and interventions (Case & Yun, 2019). Although several therapeutic approaches in medical, psychiatric, and behavioral fields have demonstrated beneficial effects (Demetriou et al., 2019), an ideal and comprehensive treatment that fully meets these children’s needs is still lacking. Behavioral, communicative, and pharmacological interventions each have limitations such as high cost, poor skill generalization, and side effects (Smith, 2011; Kasari, Freeman & Paparella, 2006; Gainzadeh, Targma, & Jeffrey, 2015). Since these approaches often overlook motor and sensory-motor development, motor-based interventions—particularly open skills (flexibility) and closed skills (accuracy and control)—are crucial (Magill, 2017; Schmidt & Lee, 2011). Such interventions can enhance sensory regulation, motor coordination, and social interaction, serving as vital components of comprehensive rehabilitation programs.Attention, as a foundation of cognitive functioning, plays an essential role in learning and everyday interaction for children with ASD. Physical exercise helps maintain cognitive levels, promoting brain maturation and improving attention. Since cognitive impairments often lead to social withdrawal (Volkmar et al., 2014), designing tailored motor programs is of great significance. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the effect of open- and closed-skill motor interventions on sustained and selective attention among high-functioning children with autism.Research QuestionFor high-functioning children with autism, difficulties in sustained and selective attention can significantly affect their learning, social interactions, and ability to complete everyday tasks. In addition, motor-based interventions—particularly open- and closed-skill training—may offer a promising opportunity to strengthen cognitive processing and sensory regulation in these children. Accordingly, the main research question is: What is the effect of an intervention based on open- and closed-skill motor training on sustained and selective attention in high-functioning children with autism?Literature ReviewThe integration of open and closed motor skills can empower children with autism to achieve greater success in their daily activities, foster better social interactions, and enhance their overall quality of life. This approach, by creating opportunities to practice focus and sensory control, holds the potential to strengthen cognitive aspects and attention in children with autism. Numerous studies have confirmed the effectiveness of programs based on open and closed motor skills in improving cognitive function: Loprinzi, Loenneke & Storm (2021) found that open and closed motor skills have positive effects on the cognitive performance of young adults aged 18 to 25. In their study, Aida (2020) reported a positive impact of open and closed skills on various types of attention in adolescent gymnasts and fencers. Feng, Zhang, Jin, & Shi (2023), in a meta-analysis, confirmed a significant effect of interventions based on open and closed motor skills on the executive functions of typically developing children. In summary, evidence suggests that interventions based on open and closed motor skills hold significant potential for improving the lives of children with autism by strengthening cognitive function and attention. Various studies have confirmed these positive effects across different age groups and sports.MethodologyThis research is quasi-experimental in terms of data collection method and applied in purpose, executed in the field. The research design includes a pre-test, post-test, and follow-up phase with a control group. The statistical population consisted of high-functioning children with autism spectrum disorder, aged 8 to 10 years, who sought treatment at clinics in Tehran in 2021. To select the sample, the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) questionnaire was completed for children with autism, and ultimately, 45 children were chosen as the research sample.The research procedure involved administering a pre-test to all participants, asking them to engage in sustained and selective attention tests. The Continuous Performance Test (CPT) was used to assess sustained attention, and the Stroop Color-Word Test was employed for selective attention. After the pre-test, participants were randomly divided into three groups of 15: an open-skills training group, a closed-skills training group, and a control group. The experimental groups underwent their respective training programs for 8 weeks, with two 60-minute sessions per week. Each session included 10 minutes of general warm-up, 40 minutes of open and closed skill training, and 10 minutes of cool-down. Finally, following the last training session, a post-test was administered. One month after the post-test, a follow-up test was conducted, and the results were recorded. For data analysis across different stages and groups, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), repeated measures ANOVA, one-way ANOVA, and the Bonferroni post-hoc test were used. Error rates for all variables were examined at an alpha level of 0.05 with% 95 confidence. All statistical operations were analyzed using SPSS version 24.ResultsIn the assessment of sustained attention, the results of the repeated measures ANOVA indicated that the main effects of stages, group, and their interaction were significant. Therefore, a within-subjects ANOVA was conducted on the factor of stages to determine the impact of different experimental conditions (open skills training, closed skills training, and control) on sustained attention scores. The results showed that in the open skills intervention condition (η² = 0.236, P= 0.024, F = 4.501) and the closed skills condition (η² =0.293, P= 0.011, F= 5.257), there were significant differences between the measurement stages. To analyze the differences, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was used. The results indicated that the open and closed skills intervention groups performed better in the post-test (P= 0.001) and follow-up (P= 0.001) compared to the pre-test.In the assessment of selective attention, the results indicated that the main effects of stages, group, and their interaction were significant. Therefore, a within-subjects ANOVA was conducted on the factor of stages to determine the effect of different experimental conditions (open skills training, closed skills training, and control) on selective attention scores. The results showed that in the open skills intervention condition (η² =0.223, P= 0.018, F= 4.083) and the closed skills condition (η² =0.281, P= 0.010, F= 4.576), there were significant differences between the measurement stages. To analyze the differences, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was also utilized. The results indicated that the open and closed skills intervention groups performed better in the post-test (P = 0.001) and follow-up (P=0.001) compared to the pre-test.DiscussionThe results of the present study showed that the main effect of training open and closed skills was significant on participants’ sustained attention. The experimental groups (engaging in open and closed motor skills training) demonstrated better performance in the post-test and follow-up phases compared to the control group. These findings are consistent with the results of Aida (2020), Bahmani et al (2018) and Torabi et al (2015). In explaining the possible reasons for these results, it can be suggested that practicing motor skills, especially open and closed skills, likely improves the functioning of neural networks related to attention and executive control in the brain—such as the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum (Feng et al., 2023). This improvement can help increase the ability of children with autism to focus and maintain attention over time.ConclusionIn general, the beneficial effects of physical activity and exercise on physical health have been well-documented across all age groups. Exercise training programs can enhance children’s executive functions. Motor exercises facilitate neuroplasticity, the formation of new synaptic structures, improved cognitive health, enhanced information processing, increased neurotransmitter efficiency, and improved cognitive function. It is likely that these factors, or a combination thereof, contribute to the improved sustained and selective attention in high-functioning children with autism after participating in the open and closed motor skills training program. Therefore, based on the research findings, it can be concluded that open and closed motor skills interventions have a significant impact on the sustained and selective attention of high-functioning children with autism. Ethical ConsiderationsAdherence to Research Ethics PrinciplesThe authors have observed all ethical principles in conducting and publishing this scientific research, and this is confirmed by all of them.Author ContributionsFarzad Maleki: Study design, supervision of the research process, verification and validation of results, revision, review, and finalization of the manuscript.Farnaz Torabi: Participation in study design, research supervision, and manuscript review and revision.Ahad Mousapour: Preparation of samples, conducting experiments and data collection, and performing calculations.Majid Mohammadi: Participation in study design, statistical analysis of data, analysis and interpretation of information and results, and drafting the original manuscript.Conflict of Interest“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”FundingThis article was conducted independently by the authors without any financial support.AcknowledgementsThis article is derived from a Master’s thesis from Payam-e Noor University in the field of Motor Behavior. The authors of the article hereby express their sincere gratitude and appreciation to all the managers, deputies, and esteemed children who participated in this research and assisted us.
Research Paper
sina barak; khalil zandi; AZAD ALLAHKARAMI
Abstract
ABSTRACT
The present study aims to conduct a qualitative content analysis of research examining the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in the education of students with special needs. In this regard, 18 scholarly articles published between 2017 and 2025 were reviewed using qualitative content analysis ...
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ABSTRACT
The present study aims to conduct a qualitative content analysis of research examining the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in the education of students with special needs. In this regard, 18 scholarly articles published between 2017 and 2025 were reviewed using qualitative content analysis and assessed for scientific quality through the CASP checklist. The analysis was conducted in two dimensions: formal and substantive. In the formal dimension, article characteristics such as research methodology, year of publication, type of disability studied, sample size, academic rank and disciplinary background of authors, and countries where the studies were conducted were examined. The results indicated that most studies were conducted in 2023 and 2024, predominantly employed quantitative methods, and mainly focused on disabilities such as autism spectrum disorder and reading disabilities. In the substantive dimension, findings revealed that AI applications are primarily categorized into three main areas: 1) diagnosis, screening, and treatment of learning disabilities, 2) support for emotional and behavioral needs, and 3) skill enhancement and improvement of academic performance. Additionally, three significant outcomes of AI use in educating students with special needs were identified: improved learning and personalized instruction, increased teacher efficiency, and enhanced educational equity. Nonetheless, challenges such as data scarcity, high costs, and ethical considerations remain pertinent in AI applications. The findings of this study can guide educational policymakers in developing inclusive and technology-driven strategies.
Keywords: Special education technology, artificial intelligence, qualitative content analysis, students with special needs
Cite this Article: Barak, S., Zandi, K., & Allahkarami, A. (2025). A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Studies on Artificial Intelligence in the Education of Students with Special Needs. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 57-83. https://doi.org/10.22054/jpe.2026.86180.2819
© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Publisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Students with special educational needs frequently encounter physical, cognitive, or sensory challenges that severely limit their access to high-quality learning environments. Artificial intelligence (AI) possesses significant potential to mitigate these barriers through tools such as adaptive learning software, smart tutoring systems, and personalized feedback mechanisms. As noted by academic researchers, the integration of AI can bridge the gap in educational equity for vulnerable groups (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). While AI's overarching impact on education is widely acknowledged, its specific applications for diverse disabilities require a more nuanced exploration. The present study addresses this gap by conducting a qualitative meta-analysis to systematically review, evaluate, and synthesize the role and performance of AI in special needs education.
Research Questions
What are the formal characteristics of the published studies regarding the application of AI for students with special needs?
For which specific challenges and problems of students with special needs has AI been employed?
What are the benefits and outcomes of using AI in the learning environments of students with special needs?
Literature Review
Previous literature extensively demonstrates the transformative potential of AI in educational settings. Studies have highlighted that AI technologies, such as robotics and natural language processing, are effective in educating and treating children with cognitive or physical limitations (Momeni & Majzoobi, 2011). Research indicates that AI-driven interactive tools enhance daily activities and foster independence for individuals with disabilities. For instance, recent studies have developed machine learning-based classification models to support university students with dyslexia using personalized tools (Zingoni et al., 2024). Furthermore, adaptive learning platforms have been shown to optimize educational strategies by identifying learning patterns. However, despite these promising advancements, a critical reflection reveals a lack of comprehensive focus on the diverse spectrum of special needs. Most existing studies address general AI applications, leaving a significant gap regarding the specific requirements of student-teachers and practitioners in this field (Goli, 2024).
Methodology
This study employed a qualitative meta-analysis methodology, which is a systematic study of prior research that allows for the comparison and synthesis of findings. The statistical population included research articles focusing on AI and the education of students with special needs. A comprehensive search was conducted across international databases (Wiley, Taylor & Francis, EBSCO, ERIC) and regional databases, covering the period from 2017 to 2025. Search queries utilized logical combinations of keywords such as "Artificial intelligence" and "Special Needs". The selection process involved screening titles and full texts against predefined inclusion criteria. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist was utilized by two independent reviewers to evaluate scientific quality. Ultimately, 18 peer-reviewed articles met the criteria and were included in the final qualitative content analysis.
Results
The analysis of the formal dimension revealed that 50% of the reviewed studies were published in 2024, indicating a surge in recent interest. Quantitative research designs were predominant (66.6%). Regarding disabilities, autism spectrum disorder (38.89%) and dyslexia (33.33%) were the most frequently studied. The substantive analysis identified three primary areas of AI application: 1) diagnosis and screening of learning disabilities; 2) emotional and behavioral support; and 3) skill enhancement. Furthermore, the synthesis of outcomes indicated that AI leads to improved personalized instruction, increased teacher efficiency, and enhanced educational accessibility.
Discussion
The findings highlight that AI in early diagnosis significantly improves accuracy. Machine learning algorithms can increase the accuracy of identifying conditions to between 85% and 95%. In terms of emotional support, AI tools like chatbots offer real-time interventions, potentially reducing emotional distress. Additionally, AI facilitates skill enhancement by generating personalized mathematical writing models. Real-time transcription tools significantly improved communication in virtual classrooms for deaf students. However, successful implementation faces obstacles such as data scarcity and ethical concerns regarding data privacy.
Conclusion
Artificial intelligence serves as a critical catalyst in transforming special needs education. By acting as an intelligent, personalized tutor, AI tailors educational content to the unique learning pace of each student. As emphasized in recent research, the impact of AI on educational planning for children with special needs is profound (Azimfar et al., 2024). This individualization elevates academic performance and liberates teachers from repetitive tasks. Ultimately, AI promotes educational equity by ensuring that learners with diverse disabilities have access to supportive environments. Future research should prioritize investigation into inclusive, technology-driven strategies to overcome ethical challenges.
Ethical Considerations
Adherence to Research Ethics Principles
The authors have observed all ethical principles in conducting and publishing this scientific research, and this is confirmed by all of them.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed equally to the conceptualization of the article and the writing of the original and subsequent drafts.
Conflict of Interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
Funding
This article was conducted independently by the authors without any financial support.
Acknowledgements
We hereby express our sincere gratitude to all the professors, colleagues, and researchers who assisted in the development of this research through their insights, resources, and shared experiences.
Research Paper
samaneh rafiee Foroushani; fatemeh izadi
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Conscious Parenting Training based on the Imago Therapy approach on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in children and the conditional regard of their mothers in Khomeinishahr County. This research utilized a quasi-experimental ...
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The present study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of Conscious Parenting Training based on the Imago Therapy approach on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in children and the conditional regard of their mothers in Khomeinishahr County. This research utilized a quasi-experimental method with a pre-test-post-test design and a control group. The statistical population consisted of all mothers with children aged 8 to 12 years with ADHD in Khomeinishahr County during the 2023-2024 academic year. From this population, 30 mothers were selected using purposive sampling based on the inclusion criteria and randomly and equally assigned to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group received the Conscious Parenting Program Based on the Imago Therapy Approach in 8 sessions of 90 minutes, while the control group did not participate in this program. The instruments used in the study included the Conners' Parent Rating Scale for ADHD (1999) and Ruth et al.'s Conditional Parental Regard Scale (2009). The data were analyzed using covariance analysis with SPSS version 26. The results indicated that Conscious Parenting Training based on the Imago Therapy approach had a significant effect on ADHD symptoms in children and the conditional Regard of their mothers in the experimental group at the post-test stage, with statistically significant differences compared to the control group (P<0.05). Therefore, Conscious Parenting Training based on the Imago Therapy approach can be used to improve ADHD symptoms in children and the conditional Regard of their mothers.
Keywords: Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity, imago relationship therapy, parent-child relations, parenting
Cite this Article: Rafiee Foroushani, S., & Izadi, F. (2025). Effectiveness of Conscious Parenting Training Based on the Imago Therapy Approach on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms in Children and Conditional Regard of Their Mothers. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 85-116. https://doi.org/10.22054/jpe.2026.86210.2821
© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Publisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Attention‑deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition shaped by both genetic and environmental factors and is characterized by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that disrupt children’s academic, social, and family functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Wiel et al., 2022). Children with ADHD frequently struggle with self‑regulation and behavioral control, which can place substantial stress on family systems. Mothers, who often take primary responsibility for caregiving, are particularly vulnerable to heightened psychological pressure and parenting challenges (Scoten et al.,2024; Nourkojuri et al.,2024). One parenting response associated with such stress is parental conditional regard, in which affection and approval are contingent upon children’s behavior or performance. Although sometimes used to manage behavior, conditional regard has been shown to undermine children’s intrinsic motivation, emotional regulation, and psychological well‑being (Otterpohl et al.,2020; Haines et al.,2023; Bouffard et al.,2023). As a result, interventions that enhance parental awareness and emotional regulation may reduce reliance on conditional regard and improve parent–child relationships.
Mindful parenting interventions emphasize present‑moment awareness, emotional regulation, and compassionate interactions between parents and children. Imago relationship therapy is one framework aligned with these principles, focusing on conscious communication and healing relational experiences within the family (Hendrix & Hunt, 1998). Previous research indicates that mindfulness‑based and parent‑training programs can improve parenting practices and reduce behavioral problems in children (Nouri et al.,2023; Amini et al.,2023; Doffer et al.,2023; Makita et al.,2023; Mah et al.,2021). Despite these findings, research specifically examining Imago‑based mindful parenting for mothers of children with ADHD remains limited. Therefore, the present study investigated whether this intervention could reduce children’s ADHD symptoms and decrease mothers’ conditional regard, thereby enhancing the quality of parent–child interactions.
Research Question
Does mindful parenting training based on the Imago therapy reduce ADHD symptoms in children and parental conditional regard among mothers of children with ADHD?
Literature Review
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity that can negatively affect children’s academic, social, and family functioning. Besides biological factors, environmental influences—especially parenting practices—play an important role in the persistence or worsening of ADHD symptoms (Wiel et al., 2022). Children with ADHD often experience behavioral and emotional difficulties that increase parental stress, particularly for mothers who typically assume the primary caregiving role (Al Yagon et al., 2020). In such contexts, parents may adopt conditional regard, a pattern in which affection and acceptance depend on the child’s behavior or performance. Although sometimes used to control behavior, conditional regard can function as psychological control, inducing guilt and weakening children’s intrinsic motivation, autonomy, and emotional regulation (Bouffard et al., 2023; Haines et al., 2023). Parent–child interactions in ADHD are often bidirectional: children’s behavioral problems increase parental stress, while ineffective parenting responses may further intensify these problems. Therefore, parenting interventions are recommended to improve family interactions and reduce behavioral difficulties (Khaleghi et al., 2020). Mindful parenting based on Imago therapy focuses on parents’ awareness of their childhood experiences and their impact on current parenting behaviors, promoting conscious communication and healthier parent–child relationships (Hendrix & Hunt, 1998; Matin et al., 2020). Although parenting programs have shown positive effects (Nouri et al., 2023; Amini et al., 2023; Doffer et al., 2023; Makita et al., 2023; Mah et al., 2021), research on Imago based mindful parenting for mothers of children with ADHD remains limited. This study examined its effectiveness in reducing ADHD symptoms and mothers’ conditional regard.
Methodology
The study employed a quasi experimental pretest–posttest design with a control group. The participants were mothers of children aged 8–12 years diagnosed with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Khomeinishahr during the 2023–2024 academic year. Using purposive sampling, 30 eligible mothers were selected and randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 15) and a control group (n = 15). Both groups completed the Conners Parent Rating Scale and the Parental Conditional Regard Questionnaire as pretests. The experimental group participated in eight 90 minute sessions of mindful parenting training based on the Imago therapy approach, while the control group received no intervention. The program emphasized increasing parental awareness, improving emotional regulation, practicing conscious dialogue, and establishing appropriate boundaries in parent–child interactions. Posttests were administered following the intervention. Data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) in SPSS version 26. Ethical considerations, including informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation, were observed. The reliability of the instruments was acceptable, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.89 and 0.84.
Results
Table 1. Results of Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA)
Variable
Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
F
Significance Level
Eta Squared
Statistical Power
Conduct Problems
31/125
1
31/125
36/439
0/001
0/584
1/00
Psychosomatic Problems
0/015
1
0/015
0/220
0/643
0/008
0/074
Anxiety–Withdrawal
3/308
1
3/308
4/057
0/054
0/135
0/492
Impulsivity
5/135
1
5/135
18/149
0/001
0/411
0/984
Learning Problems
11/089
1
11/089
30/985
0/001
0/544
1/00
Hypoactivity
2/303
1
2/303
3/702
0/065
0/125
0/457
Total ADHD Score
105/338
1
105/338
32/808
0/001
0/558
1/00
Positive Academic Conditional Regard
200/042
1
200/042
41/523
0/001
0/615
1/00
Negative Academic Conditional Regard
182/882
1
182/882
4/859
0/037
0/157
0/565
Positive Emotional Conditional Regard
204/335
1
204/335
59/700
0/001
0/697
1/00
Negative Emotional Conditional Regard
140/405
1
140/405
16/105
0/001
0/382
0/971
Total Conditional Regard Score
509/259
1
509/259
9/078
0/006
0/259
0/826
According to Table 4, the intervention had a statistically significant effect on several ADHD‑related outcomes, including conduct problems, psychosomatic problems, anxiety–withdrawal, learning problems, impulsivity, hypoactivity, and overall ADHD symptoms (p < .05). The intervention explained 58% of the variance in conduct problems, 41% in impulsivity, 54% in learning problems, 12% in hypoactivity, and 55% in total ADHD symptoms. Additionally, significant effects were found for parental conditional regard. The intervention accounted for 61% of the variance in positive academic conditional regard, 15% in negative academic conditional regard, 69% in positive emotional conditional regard, 38% in negative emotional conditional regard, and 25% in total conditional regard.
Discussion
The present study examined the effectiveness of mindful parenting training based on the Imago therapy approach on children’s Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms and mothers’ conditional regard. The findings showed that the intervention significantly reduced ADHD symptoms in the experimental group, while no significant changes were observed in the control group. These results suggest that mindful parenting grounded in Imago therapy can improve children’s behavioral and attentional functioning through increased parental awareness, improved emotional regulation, and more effective parent–child interactions. Parents who learn mindful parenting skills are better able to respond calmly to children’s behaviors and establish healthier communication patterns. The findings also indicated a significant decrease in mothers’ conditional regard after the intervention. Mindful parenting based on Imago therapy encourages unconditional acceptance and emotional availability rather than linking affection to children’s behavior or performance. Overall, the results support previous studies highlighting the benefits of mindful parenting interventions in improving parent–child relationships and reducing behavioral difficulties in children with ADHD.
Conclusion
In conclusion, mindful parenting training based on the Imago therapy approach was effective in reducing ADHD symptoms in children and decreasing mothers’ conditional regard. Despite limitations such as non random sampling and the absence of a follow up phase, the results highlight the practical value of this intervention. It is recommended that educators, clinicians, and child development practitioners implement this program in school and clinical settings to promote mindful parenting, improve parent–child relationships, and support children with ADHD in academic and everyday contexts.
Ethical Considerations
Adherence to Research Ethics Principles
This study received the ethics code IR.IAU.KHSH.REC.1403.005 from the Ethics Committee of Islamic Azad University, Khomeinishahr Branch. The authors have observed all ethical principles in conducting and publishing this scientific research, and this is confirmed by all of them.
Author Contributions
Data collection: Samaneh Rafiei Forushani
Research report preparation: Samaneh Rafiei Forushani
Data analysis: Samaneh Rafiei Forushani
The contributions of the authors in this article, which is derived from a dissertation, are as follows:
First Author: Preparation of samples, conducting experiments and data collection, performing calculations, statistical analysis of data, analysis and interpretation of information and results, and drafting the original manuscript.
Second Author (Supervisor): Study design, supervision of the research process, verification and validation of results, and revision, review, and finalization of the manuscript.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed equally to the conceptualization of the article and the writing of the original and subsequent drafts.
Conflict of Interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to sincerely thank all professors and mothers who cooperated in conducting this research.
Research Paper
Zohre Eghbalnia; Mohammad Ashori; Ghasem Norouzi
Abstract
The present research aimed to develop and validate an empowerment-based parenting program to improve relationships between mothers and their hard-of-hearing adolescents. This qualitative study was conducted using the content analysis method. The research population included specialists, teachers, and ...
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The present research aimed to develop and validate an empowerment-based parenting program to improve relationships between mothers and their hard-of-hearing adolescents. This qualitative study was conducted using the content analysis method. The research population included specialists, teachers, and mothers of hard-of-hearing adolescents in Mashhad in 2024. The research sample for developing the program was determined through purposive sampling and reached theoretical saturation after 12 in-depth semi-structured interviews. The research sample for validating the program included 10 experts who were selected through purposive sampling. The program development process included reviewing sources, interviewing participants, developing the program, and validating it. To determine content validity, the content validity ratio coefficient and the content validity index were used, and to determine reliability, the percentage agreement method was used. Thus, the empowerment-based parenting program was developed in ten sessions, and its content validity ratio coefficient and content validity index were 0.94 and 0.96, respectively. The reliability of the program was also obtained by the percentage agreement method of experts, equal to 95 percent. Based on the findings, the empowerment-based parenting program has high validity and reliability in improving the relationships between mothers and their hard-of-hearing adolescents.
Keywords: Development, hard-of-hearing adolescents, parenting, validation
Cite this Article: Eghbalnia, Z., Ashori, M., & Norouzi, G. (2025). Developing and Validating an Empowerment-Based Parenting Program to Improve Relationships between Mothers and Their Hard-of-Hearing Adolescents. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 117-142. https://doi.org/10.22054/JPE.2026.86537.2827
© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Publisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Extended Abstract
Introduction
The birth and presence of a hard-of-hearing child and concerns about his or her future may weaken the family’s integrity and foundation (Hallahan et al., 2023). Hard-of-hearing may be an obstacle to the normal development of emotions (Danadel & Ashori, 2025). Hard-of-hearing children and adolescents may have a profound adverse impact on the family, social, and psychological dimensions of family members (Asta et al., 2024; Eghbalnia & Ashori, 2024). Mothers of hard-of-hearing children are often under excessive stress (Continisio et al., 2023; Shastri et al., 2025). They have a great need for information about their child's hearing impairment, parenting strategies, and connections to support groups (Altuntas & Karataş, 2024). On the other hand, the foundation of developing relationships is based on strengths, and attention should be paid to each person’s unique talents (Clifton & Anderson, 2016).
Empowerment-based parenting is a positive parenting style that is characterized by promoting knowledge and focusing on the child’s capacities, talents, individual skills, and personality, or emphasizing his or her abilities and strengths (Waters, 2017). However, the quality of parent-child relationships affects the growth and development of a hearing-impaired child (Ashori, 2022). Given the dynamic and two-way relationship between parenting and adolescent behavior, it is necessary to use a program based on the capabilities of individuals that leads to the improvement of these relationships and improves the ability of parents to face the challenges of raising a hard-of-hearing adolescent.
Research Question
The question of this research is related to the development and validation of an empowerment-based parenting program to improve the relationships between mothers and their hard-of-hearing adolescents.
Literature Review
The results of Rosenzweig et al. (2024) showed that acceptance of hard-of-hearing adolescents by their mothers helps improve their psychological well-being and quality of life. The findings of Davids et al. (2021) indicated that parental education and awareness improve parent and hard-of-hearing child relationships. The findings of Aghaziarati et al. (2021) showed that discovering and analyzing the development of parent and hard-of-hearing child relationships and the way parents interact and raise these children have a significant positive impact on their life satisfaction and quality of life.
Methodology
This research was fundamental in terms of purpose and qualitative in terms of method. The research population included mothers of hard-of-hearing adolescents as well as teachers and specialists in the field of psychology and education of deaf and hard-of-hearing children in Mashhad in the academic year 2024-2025. The sample size was determined based on the theoretical saturation criterion. In total, the interviews conducted to discover the themes included interviews with 12 people who were selected through purposive sampling. Each interview lasted an average of 45 to 60 minutes. Inductive content analysis was used to analyze the interviews, and thus, an empowerment-based parenting program for mothers of hard-of-hearing adolescents was developed and then validated.
Results
The empowerment -based parenting program was developed based on thematic analysis. Thus, the organizing themes from the interviews are reported in the purpose column and the basic themes in the content column in Table 1.
Table 1. The purpose and content of the sessions of the empowerment-based parenting program
Sessions
Purpose
Content
1
Establishing effective communication and desirable interaction with the hard-of-hearing adolescent
Creating a hopeful connection with the parent and hard-of-hearing adolescent bond, identifying a map of capabilities and preparing for change
2
Creating a positive, supportive and loving and respectful environment without judging or criticizing the hard-of-hearing adolescent
3
Positive parenting with an emphasis on the talent, abilities, and strengths of the hard-of-hearing teenager
Assessing needs, paying attention to individual family differences with positive dialogue
4
Positive reinforcement with praise and compliments based on strengths and abilities
5
Positive personality and psychological characteristics of yourself and your hard-of-hearing child
Goal setting and well-being, self-confidence, resilience and flexibility
6
Encouragement of self-learning, self-regulation and facing special challenges
7
Positive emotional and behavioral characteristics of self and hard-of-hearing child
Identifying and managing emotions and behaviors with an emphasis on a sense of belonging and optimism
8
Improving individual performance with self-awareness, responsibility, hopefulness, and self-esteem
9
Skills and characteristics of the self and the hard-of-hearing child in society
Improving social functioning by increasing empathy and cooperation with a positive outlook
10
Environmental resources, social participation and special group and educational games
The empowerment-based parenting program was developed in ten sessions, and its content validity ratio coefficient and content validity index were 0.94 and 0.96, respectively. The reliability of the program was also obtained by the percentage agreement method of experts, equal to 95 percent.
Discussion
The present research aimed to develop and validate an empowerment-based parenting program to improve relationships between mothers and their hard-of-hearing adolescents. In fact, the content of the empowerment-based parenting program was determined using thematic analysis. Thus, from the analysis of interview data, five organizing themes were obtained: how to establish effective communication and desirable interaction with a hard-of-hearing adolescents, positive parenting with an emphasis on the talents and capabilities of the hard-of-hearing adolescents, positive personality and psychological characteristics of oneself and the hard-of-hearing child, positive emotional and behavioral characteristics of oneself and the hard-of-hearing child, and skills and characteristics of oneself and the hard-of-hearing child in society. In this way, the empowerment -based parenting program was developed and validated in ten sessions.
This program is consistent with the content of Sanders et al.’s (2014) Positive Parenting Intervention sessions in terms of identifying parent and child needs, parenting skills, family functioning, and the parent-child relationship. In addition, the empowerment-based parenting program was consistent with Markham’s (2015) relaxing parenting protocol in terms of coaching and educating rather than controlling, restraining, and directing oneself in the parenting role and improving the relationship with the child. In order to explain the use of scientific methods to develop an empowerment-focused parenting program, it can be stated that given that family members of a hard-of-hearing child or adolescent often have to make important decisions, face complex situations, and endure relatively high levels of stress (Dharanidharan & Kuruveettissery, 2025), on the other hand, sometimes parents have little information about their child's hearing loss and have difficulty communicating with them, and they face specific challenges in parenting (Davids et al., 2021). In this regard, the need for a program based on their own and their children’s capabilities and strengths is of particular importance.
Conclusion
In general, the empowerment-based parenting program places more importance on the interaction of different factors, including parental capabilities, self-confidence, parental acceptance, creating a safe environment, how to control and manage behavior, and improving parental relationships with hard-of-hearing adolescents. According to the results, this program has good validity and reliability. Accordingly, it seems to have a positive and significant effect. One of the limitations of the research was that it only examined the talents, strengths, and capabilities of hard-of-hearing adolescents and their mothers in Mashhad. It is suggested that future research should also pay attention to the challenges and problems of hard-of-hearing adolescents. In addition to mothers, the perspectives of fathers and other family members should also be examined.
Ethical Considerations
Adherence to Research Ethics Principles
This study is derived from a doctoral dissertation in the field of Psychology and Education of Exceptional Children at the University of Isfahan and has received the ethics code IR.UI.REC.1404.004 from the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan.
Author Contributions
First Author: Preparation of samples, conducting experiments and data collection, performing calculations, statistical analysis of data, analysis and interpretation of information and results, and drafting the original manuscript.
Second Author (Supervisor): Dissertation supervision, study design, supervision of the research process, verification and validation of results, revision, collaboration in drafting the original manuscript, and review and finalization of the manuscript.
Third Author (Advisor): Dissertation advisory, participation in study design, research supervision, and manuscript review and revision.
Conflict of Interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
Funding
This article was conducted independently by the authors without any financial support.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all mothers and specialists who participated in this research.
Research Paper
Amir Ghamarani
Abstract
ABSTRACTGiven the increasing prevalence of emotional-behavioral problems in children and the challenges that mothers of these children face, helping mothers control the anxiety caused by coping with parenting challenges is becoming important. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness ...
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ABSTRACTGiven the increasing prevalence of emotional-behavioral problems in children and the challenges that mothers of these children face, helping mothers control the anxiety caused by coping with parenting challenges is becoming important. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of the paradoxical time table on mothers' anxiety and worry, and daughters' internalized problems. This study was a quasi-experimental study with pretest, posttest, and follow-up phases with a control group. The statistical population was daughters (age 7-9) with internalizing problems in Isfahan in 1404 and their mothers. By a purposeful sampling method, 40 people from this population were selected as a sample, and 20 people were randomly assigned to the experimental group, and 20 people were randomly assigned to the control group. Mothers in the experimental group participated in six 60-minute sessions of the paradoxical time table, and the control group did not receive any intervention. Both groups completed the research instruments including: the Beck Anxiety Scale, Pennsylvania Anxiety Questionnaire, and Achenbach Behavioral Disorders Inventory (2001), before and after the intervention. The data were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of covariance. The findings showed that the values of both variables in the experimental groups in the post-test and follow-up stage were significantly different from the pretest stage (significance level less than 0.05). Therefore, this intervention had a positive and significant effect on (maternal anxiety (F = 420.587, P = 0.0001), (maternal worry (F = 231.057, P = 0.0001), and daughters' internalized problems (F = 288.629, P = 0.0001). Therefore, the paradoxical timetable is effective on maternal anxiety and worry, and daughters' internalized problems. Given the importance of maternal function in relation to children, providing education and therapeutic interventions to mothers in order to reduce mothers' negative emotions and control children's internalized problems can be effective.Keywords: Paradoxical time table, maternal anxiety, maternal worry, internalized problemsCite this Article: Ghamarani, A. (2025). The Effectiveness of Paradoxical Time Table on Mothers' Anxiety and Worry, and Daughters' Internalized Problems. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 143-176. https://doi.org/10.22054/jpe.2026.88011.2856© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University PressPublisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press Extended AbstractIntroductionEmotional and behavioral problems in children are considered one of the most important issues and problems in child psychology. Childhood is a very important period of a person's life because childhood experiences predict the mental health of individuals in adulthood (Lewis & McKelvey, 2025). One of the most common psychological problems in children is emotional and behavioral problems (Christopher et al., 2023). Research by Chougule et al. (2023) estimated the incidence of these disorders in adolescents to be about 13.7% to 50%. Racine et al. (2021) believe that the prevalence of internalized behavioral problems in the world has increased in recent years and have stated that the global prevalence of anxiety and depression in children is 20.5% and 25.2%, respectively. Internalized problems in children have a negative impact on the child's personal performance and prevent children from performing in line with their abilities (Dostani and Ghamarani, 2021). Therefore, internalized problems in children are debilitating problems for children. The family, as a fundamental social structure and a stable psychosocial environment for children, plays an important role in shaping their emotions and behavior (Li et al., 2025). Among all family members, the importance of the mother's role in children's mental health is an important issue that should not be ignored. Mother's mental health plays an important role in preventing children from developing behavioral problems (Shiralinia et al., 2019). By disrupting early mother-child relationships, maternal anxiety can cause emotional disorders, low levels of mental vitality, and psychological insecurity in children (Karimabadi, 2014). In general, the quality of maternal care for children is effective in preventing children's internalized behavioral problems (Shaabani and NematTavosi, 2014). Therefore, providing training and interventions that reduce mothers' negative emotions and feelings can also be effective in reducing children's behavioral problems (Li et al., 2025). Despite the existence of effective interventions for anxiety disorders, the recurrence of symptoms in the long term is one of the challenges that people with anxiety disorders face (Krijnen et al., 2022). Paradox therapy has shown its effectiveness in the treatment of anxiety disorders. Paradoxical timetable therapy (PTC) consists of two main techniques, namely paradox and time table. Given that this treatment method has shown its effectiveness in the treatment of psychological disorders, especially anxiety disorders, and problems such as recurrence of symptoms, or the persistence of symptoms after treatment, do not exist in this type of treatment. Accordingly, in the present study, an intervention was designed to treat mothers' anxiety and worry and daughters' internalized problems using paradoxical timetable therapy.Research QuestionsDoes the paradoxical timetable affect mothers' anxiety and worry?Does the paradoxical timetable affect girls' internalized problems?Literature ReviewPardes et al. (2024) believe that exposure approaches are effective methods for the permanent treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression. One of the newest methods of exposure therapy is the Time Table + Paradox = PTC therapy, which is called paradox therapy for short. Paradox therapy has shown its effectiveness in the treatment of anxiety disorders such as death anxiety (Mardani et al., 2025), post-traumatic stress disorder (Asadiov et al., 2024), panic disorder (Najafi et al., 2024), body dysmorphic disorder in women (Mahboubi et al., 2024), social anxiety disorder (Beshart, 1398), illness anxiety (Beshart, 2019), obsessive-compulsive disorder (Ahmadi et al., 2020; Beshart, 2019), and in emotion regulation and perceived rejection (Ebrahimpour, 2024). The review goes under these subheadings.MethodologyThis research is an applied research and in terms of statistical method, it is a quantitative research of semi-experimental type with a pre-test-post-test design with a waiting list. The statistical population of the research was children with internalizing behavioral problems and their mothers were in Isfahan in 1404. Sampling was carried out purposively and students aged 7 to 9 years who had been referred to this center based on a psychiatric interview for internalizing behavioral problems and who met the inclusion criteria for the study were contacted through a counseling center in Isfahan. 30 students whose scores on the Achenbach Internalizing Behavior Problems Questionnaire were two standard deviations above the mean and who were willing to cooperate with their mothers were randomly assigned to two experimental groups and a waiting list, and the mothers in the experimental group received paradoxical timetable therapy. The inclusion criteria for the study included 1. having a child aged 7 to 9 years, 2. having a minimum education level of a high school diploma for mothers, 3. having a mother aged 30 to 40 years, 4. having a written consent form signed by the mother for the children to participate in the study, and 5. not being a single parent in the family (due to divorce or death of the spouse). The exclusion criteria also included 1. not being continuously present in the research project (absent more than two sessions), 2. using psychological services simultaneously, 3. receiving another psychiatric diagnosis within the past three years. The research instruments included the Anxiety and Worry Questionnaire for Mothers, and the Achenbach Behavioral Disorders Inventory (ASEBA).ResultsTable 1. Descriptive statistics of maternal anxiety, maternal worry and internalized problems in two groupsVariables ExperimentalControlTestNM ± SDM ± SDmaternal anxietyPre test2017.10 ± 2.2217.85 ± 2.18Post test2011.55 ± 2.0818.15 ± 2.30Follow up2012.65 ± 2.0518.50 ± 2.16maternal worryPre test2030.65 ± 3.8630.95 ± 3.47Post test2022.65 ± 3.7832.15 ± 2.94Follow up2021.30 ± 3.7131.25 ± 3.40internalized problemsPre test2020.05 ± 1.9019.65± 2.13Post test209.40 ± 1.1820.05 ± 2.37Follow up2010.35 ± 0.9320.35 ± 2.00Table 2. Repeated Measures ANOVA to Examine Within- and Between-Group EffectsvariableSource of VariationSum of SquaresdfMean SquareFPEta SquaredAnxietyTime (Within-subject)200.721200.72233.4980.00010.860 Time × Group130.051130.05420.5870.00010.917 Group (Between-subject)580.801580.80519.420.00010.528WorryTime (Within-subject)231.201231.20126.2300.00010.769 Time × Group432.201432.20231.0570.00010.859 Group (Between-subject)1300.20811300.20837.0620.00010.494Internalizing ProblemsTime (Within-subject)405.001405.00216.1520.00010.850 Time × Group540.801540.80288.6290.00010.884 Group (Between-subject)1366.87511366.875227.0990.00010.857DiscussionThe present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the effectiveness of the paradoxical time table on mothers' anxiety and worry, and children's internalized problems. The results of the study provided the necessary theoretical support for the paradoxical time table, based on which the paradoxical time table can reduce symptoms of anxiety and worry in mothers and also control children's internalized problems. The first finding of the study showed that the paradoxical timetable is effective in reducing mothers' anxiety and worry. In explaining this finding, the mechanisms of the paradoxical timetable's effectiveness can be mentioned. The artificialization of anxiety symptoms, and the experience of anxiety states prescribed by the therapist, with the help of the experience of reconstructing events, causes the person to have less anxiety about the subject of anxiety, despite the activation of worry, the principle of delayed onset, which causes the person to have less anxiety about the subject of anxiety. Another finding of the study showed that the paradoxical timetable is effective in reducing children's internalized problems. In explaining this finding, it can be said that mothers' worries and stresses are the factors that weaken the mother-child relationship, and as a result, create and perpetuate children's internalized problems (He et al., 2023). Given that in the present study, presenting a paradoxical timetable to mothers reduced their anxiety and worry, and this led to an improvement in the quality of mothers' relationships with their children (Shiralinia et al., 2019), ultimately, a reduction in internalized problems in children was expected. Ethical ConsiderationsAdherence to Research Ethics PrinciplesThis study has received the ethics code IR.UI.REC.1403.106 from the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan. The authors have observed all ethical principles in conducting and publishing this scientific research, and this is confirmed by all of them.Author ContributionsFirst Author: Preparation of samples, conducting experiments and data collection, performing calculations, statistical analysis of data, analysis and interpretation of information and results, drafting the original manuscript, verification and validation of results, revision, review, and finalization of the manuscript.Conflict of Interest“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”FundingThis article was conducted independently by the authors without any financial support.AcknowledgementsWe would like to express our gratitude and appreciation to all mothers and children who participated in this research.
Research Paper
Zohreh Nikpey; Ahmad Karbalaee Mohammad Meigouni; Mohammad Reza Seirafi
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a parental behavior management training program on parent-child interaction, academic buoyancy, and symptoms in children exhibiting signs of conduct disorder. The research method was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest control group design. ...
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This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of a parental behavior management training program on parent-child interaction, academic buoyancy, and symptoms in children exhibiting signs of conduct disorder. The research method was quasi-experimental with a pretest-posttest control group design. The statistical population comprised all mothers of children with symptoms of conduct disorder in Karaj City during the 2024–2025 academic year. Using purposive sampling, 30 mothers of children with conduct disorder symptoms were selected and randomly assigned into two experimental groups and one control group. Data collection instruments included the Pianta Parent-Child Interaction Questionnaire (1994), the Martin & Marsh Academic Buoyancy Scale (2008), and the parent version of the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (2001). Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26, employing univariate and multivariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA and MANCOVA) along with the Bonferroni post-hoc test. The significance level was set at 0.05. The results showed that the parental behavior management program had a significant effect on improving parent-child interaction, enhancing academic buoyancy, and reducing symptoms of conduct disorder. Based on these findings, the parental behavior management program can be utilized as a practical and effective intervention in family counseling centers and schools to improve parent-child interaction, increase academic buoyancy, and reduce conduct disorder symptoms in children.
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