نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

• فرزاد ملکی ¹
• فرناز ترابی ²
• احد موسی پور ³
• مجید محمدی ⁴

¹ نویسنده مسئول، استادیار رفتار حرکتی، گروه تربیت‌بدنی و علوم ورزشی، دانشگاه پیام‌نور، ایران. رایانامه: fa.maleki@pnu.ac.ir

² دانشیار رفتار حرکتی، گروه تربیت‌بدنی و علوم ورزشی، دانشگاه پیام‌نور، ایران. رایانامه: f.torabi@pnu.ac.ir

³ کارشناس ارشد رفتار حرکتی، گروه تربیت‌بدنی و علوم ورزشی، دانشگاه پیام‌نور، ایران. رایانامه: mosapoor23@yahoo.com

⁴ استادیار رفتار حرکتی، گروه تربیت‌بدنی و علوم ورزشی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم‌انسانی، دانشگاه لرستان، خرم‌آباد، ایران. رایانامه: mohammadi.m@lu.ac.ir

چکیده

کودکان اوتیسم از سطح پائین عملکرد شناختی برخوردارند ازآنجایی‌که فعالیت بدنی بر شناخت و بهزیستی اثرات مثبتی دارد، هدف از پژوهش حاضر بررسی تأثیر مداخله مبتنی بر مهارت‌های حرکتی باز و بسته بر توجه پایدار و انتخابی کودکان اوتیسم با عملکرد بالا در یک مطالعه با پیگیری یک‌ماهه بود. به همین منظور تعداد 45 نفر از کودکان با اختلال درخودماندگی اوتیسم با عملکرد بالا با دامنه سنی 8 تا 10 سال از شهر تهران انتخاب و بعد از انجام پیش‌آزمون (آزمون عملکرد پیوسته و رنگ واژه استروپ) به‌صورت تصادفی در سه گروه مداخله مهارت‌های حرکتی باز، بسته و گواه طبقه‌بندی شدند. کودکان در گروه مداخله به مدت 12 جلسه و هر جلسه 60 دقیقه به اجرای برنامه تمرینی موردنظر پرداختند، گروه گواه در این مدت فعالیت‌های روزانه خود را انجام دادند. درنهایت پس از اتمام آخرین جلسه تمرینی، بلافاصله پس‌آزمون اجرا شد و یک ماه پس‌ازآن، ارزیابی پیگیری صورت گرفت و نتایج ثبت گردید. نتایج حاصل از آزمون تحلیل واریانس مرکب نشان داد اثر مداخله مهارت‌های باز و بسته بر توجه پایدار (001/0=p) و انتخابی (001/0=p) شرکت‌کنندگان معنی‌دار بود. علاوه بر این در مقایسه جفتی نتایج نشان داد که در مرحله پس‌آزمون (001/0=p) و پیگیری (001/0=p) عملکرد گروه مداخله مهارت‌های باز به‌طور معنی‌داری بالاتر از گروه مداخله مهارت‌های بسته و گواه بود. باتوجه‌به یافته‌ها به نظر می‌رسد استفاده از مداخله مبتنی بر آموزش مهارت‌های حرکتی باز و بسته می‌تواند روشی سودمند برای فرایندهای توجه ای کودکان اوتیسم با عملکرد بالا باشد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

• مهارت حرکتی باز و بسته
• توجه انتخابی
• توجه پایدار
• اوتیسم

عنوان مقاله [English]

The Effect of Intervention based on Open and Closed Motor Skills on Sustained and Selective Attention of High-Functioning Autistic Children: a Study with a One-Month Follow-Up

نویسندگان [English]

• farzad malki ¹
• faezaneh torabi ²
• Ahad Musapour ³
• majid mohammadi ⁴

¹ Corresponding Author, Assistant Professor of motor behavior, Department of Physical Education, University of Payam Noor, Iran. E-mail: fa.maleki@pnu.ac.ir

² Assistant Professor of motor behavior, Department of Physical Education, University of Payam Noor, Iran. E-mail: f.torabi@pnu.ac.ir

³ Master of Science in Motor Behavior, Department of Physical Education, University of Payam Noor, Iran. E-mail: mosapoor23@yahoo.com

⁴ Assistant Professor of motor behavior, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Lorestan University, Khoramabad, Iran. E-mail: mohammadi.m@lu.ac.ir

چکیده [English]

ABSTRACT
Children with autism have low levels of cognitive function. Since physical activity has positive effects on cognition and well-being, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of intervention based on open and closed motor skills on the sustained and selective attention of high-functioning autistic children in a study with a one-month follow-up. For this purpose, 45 children with high-functioning autism, aged 8 to 10 years, were selected from Tehran and, after completing a pre-test (continuous performance test and Stroop word color test), were randomly classified into three open, closed motor skills intervention and control groups. Experimental groups performed the desired training program for 12 sessions and 60 minutes each session, during which the control group performed their daily activities. Finally, after the last post-test training session and 24 hours after the post-test, a note was made, and the results were recorded. The results of the combined analysis of variance test showed that the effect of open and closed skills training on stable (p=0.001) and selective (p=0.001) attention of participants was significant. In addition, in pairwise comparison, the results showed that in the follow-up (p=0.001) and post-test (p=0.001), the performance of the open skills training group was significantly higher than the closed and control skills training group. According to the findings, it seems that the use of open and closed motor skills training can be a useful intervention for the attention processes of children with autism spectrum disorders.
Keywords: Open and closed motor skills, selective attention, sustained attention, children with autism
Cite this Article: Maleki, F., Torabi, F., Moosapoor, A., & Mohammadi, M. (2025). The Effect of Intervention based on Open and Closed Motor Skills on Sustained and Selective Attention of High-Functioning Autistic Children: a Study with a One-Month Follow-Up. Psychology of Exceptional Individuals, 15(60), 31-56. https://doi.org/10.22054/JPE.2026.75746.2616
© 2025 by Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
Publisher: Allameh Tabataba'i University Press
 
 
Extended Abstract
Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) results from structural and functional abnormalities in various brain regions and is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, stereotyped behaviors, language delays, and cognitive deficits (Qureshi et al., 2021). Its prevalence is steadily increasing, with global statistics showing that one in every 59 births is affected by autism (Hyman, Levy, & Myers, 2020).
The complexity of ASD challenges has driven researchers across disciplines to seek effective treatments and interventions (Case & Yun, 2019). Although several therapeutic approaches in medical, psychiatric, and behavioral fields have demonstrated beneficial effects (Demetriou et al., 2019), an ideal and comprehensive treatment that fully meets these children’s needs is still lacking.
 Behavioral, communicative, and pharmacological interventions each have limitations such as high cost, poor skill generalization, and side effects (Smith, 2011; Kasari, Freeman & Paparella, 2006; Gainzadeh, Targma, & Jeffrey, 2015). Since these approaches often overlook motor and sensory-motor development, motor-based interventions—particularly open skills (flexibility) and closed skills (accuracy and control)—are crucial (Magill, 2017; Schmidt & Lee, 2011). Such interventions can enhance sensory regulation, motor coordination, and social interaction, serving as vital components of comprehensive rehabilitation programs.
Attention, as a foundation of cognitive functioning, plays an essential role in learning and everyday interaction for children with ASD. Physical exercise helps maintain cognitive levels, promoting brain maturation and improving attention. Since cognitive impairments often lead to social withdrawal (Volkmar et al., 2014), designing tailored motor programs is of great significance. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the effect of open- and closed-skill motor interventions on sustained and selective attention among high-functioning children with autism.
Research Question
For high-functioning children with autism, difficulties in sustained and selective attention can significantly affect their learning, social interactions, and ability to complete everyday tasks. In addition, motor-based interventions—particularly open- and closed-skill training—may offer a promising opportunity to strengthen cognitive processing and sensory regulation in these children. Accordingly, the main research question is: What is the effect of an intervention based on open- and closed-skill motor training on sustained and selective attention in high-functioning children with autism?
Literature Review
The integration of open and closed motor skills can empower children with autism to achieve greater success in their daily activities, foster better social interactions, and enhance their overall quality of life. This approach, by creating opportunities to practice focus and sensory control, holds the potential to strengthen cognitive aspects and attention in children with autism. Numerous studies have confirmed the effectiveness of programs based on open and closed motor skills in improving cognitive function:
 Loprinzi, Loenneke & Storm (2021) found that open and closed motor skills have positive effects on the cognitive performance of young adults aged 18 to 25. In their study, Aida (2020) reported a positive impact of open and closed skills on various types of attention in adolescent gymnasts and fencers.
 Feng, Zhang, Jin, & Shi (2023), in a meta-analysis, confirmed a significant effect of interventions based on open and closed motor skills on the executive functions of typically developing children. In summary, evidence suggests that interventions based on open and closed motor skills hold significant potential for improving the lives of children with autism by strengthening cognitive function and attention. Various studies have confirmed these positive effects across different age groups and sports.
Methodology
This research is quasi-experimental in terms of data collection method and applied in purpose, executed in the field. The research design includes a pre-test, post-test, and follow-up phase with a control group. The statistical population consisted of high-functioning children with autism spectrum disorder, aged 8 to 10 years, who sought treatment at clinics in Tehran in 2021. To select the sample, the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) questionnaire was completed for children with autism, and ultimately, 45 children were chosen as the research sample.
The research procedure involved administering a pre-test to all participants, asking them to engage in sustained and selective attention tests. The Continuous Performance Test (CPT) was used to assess sustained attention, and the Stroop Color-Word Test was employed for selective attention. After the pre-test, participants were randomly divided into three groups of 15: an open-skills training group, a closed-skills training group, and a control group. The experimental groups underwent their respective training programs for 8 weeks, with two 60-minute sessions per week. Each session included 10 minutes of general warm-up, 40 minutes of open and closed skill training, and 10 minutes of cool-down. Finally, following the last training session, a post-test was administered. One month after the post-test, a follow-up test was conducted, and the results were recorded. For data analysis across different stages and groups, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), repeated measures ANOVA, one-way ANOVA, and the Bonferroni post-hoc test were used. Error rates for all variables were examined at an alpha level of 0.05 with% 95 confidence. All statistical operations were analyzed using SPSS version 24.
Results
In the assessment of sustained attention, the results of the repeated measures ANOVA indicated that the main effects of stages, group, and their interaction were significant. Therefore, a within-subjects ANOVA was conducted on the factor of stages to determine the impact of different experimental conditions (open skills training, closed skills training, and control) on sustained attention scores. The results showed that in the open skills intervention condition (η² = 0.236, P= 0.024, F = 4.501) and the closed skills condition (η² =0.293, P= 0.011, F= 5.257), there were significant differences between the measurement stages. To analyze the differences, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was used. The results indicated that the open and closed skills intervention groups performed better in the post-test (P= 0.001) and follow-up (P= 0.001) compared to the pre-test.
In the assessment of selective attention, the results indicated that the main effects of stages, group, and their interaction were significant. Therefore, a within-subjects ANOVA was conducted on the factor of stages to determine the effect of different experimental conditions (open skills training, closed skills training, and control) on selective attention scores. The results showed that in the open skills intervention condition (η² =0.223, P= 0.018, F= 4.083) and the closed skills condition (η² =0.281, P= 0.010, F= 4.576), there were significant differences between the measurement stages. To analyze the differences, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was also utilized. The results indicated that the open and closed skills intervention groups performed better in the post-test (P = 0.001) and follow-up (P=0.001) compared to the pre-test.
Discussion
The results of the present study showed that the main effect of training open and closed skills was significant on participants’ sustained attention. The experimental groups (engaging in open and closed motor skills training) demonstrated better performance in the post-test and follow-up phases compared to the control group. These findings are consistent with the results of Aida (2020), Bahmani et al (2018) and Torabi et al (2015). In explaining the possible reasons for these results, it can be suggested that practicing motor skills, especially open and closed skills, likely improves the functioning of neural networks related to attention and executive control in the brain—such as the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum (Feng et al., 2023). This improvement can help increase the ability of children with autism to focus and maintain attention over time.
Conclusion
In general, the beneficial effects of physical activity and exercise on physical health have been well-documented across all age groups. Exercise training programs can enhance children’s executive functions. Motor exercises facilitate neuroplasticity, the formation of new synaptic structures, improved cognitive health, enhanced information processing, increased neurotransmitter efficiency, and improved cognitive function. It is likely that these factors, or a combination thereof, contribute to the improved sustained and selective attention in high-functioning children with autism after participating in the open and closed motor skills training program. Therefore, based on the research findings, it can be concluded that open and closed motor skills interventions have a significant impact on the sustained and selective attention of high-functioning children with autism.
 
 
Ethical Considerations
Adherence to Research Ethics Principles
The authors have observed all ethical principles in conducting and publishing this scientific research, and this is confirmed by all of them.
Author Contributions
Farzad Maleki: Study design, supervision of the research process, verification and validation of results, revision, review, and finalization of the manuscript.
Farnaz Torabi: Participation in study design, research supervision, and manuscript review and revision.
Ahad Mousapour: Preparation of samples, conducting experiments and data collection, and performing calculations.
Majid Mohammadi: Participation in study design, statistical analysis of data, analysis and interpretation of information and results, and drafting the original manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
“The authors declare no conflict of interest.”
Funding
This article was conducted independently by the authors without any financial support.
Acknowledgements
This article is derived from a Master’s thesis from Payam-e Noor University in the field of Motor Behavior. The authors of the article hereby express their sincere gratitude and appreciation to all the managers, deputies, and esteemed children who participated in this research and assisted us.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

• Open and closed motor skills
• selective attention
• sustained attention
• children with autism