نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

• هیفاء عادل سامی جمیل الخضر ¹
• محمد تقی اقدسی ²
• امیر قیامی راد ³

¹ دانشجوی دکتری رفتار حرکتی، دانشگاه تبریز، تبریز، ایران.

² استاد گروه رفتار حرکتی، دانشگاه تبریز، تبریز، ایران.

³ دانشیار گروه بیومکانیک ورزشی، دانشگاه تبریز، تبریز، ایران.

چکیده

پژوهش حاضر با هدف بررسی اثربخشی 8 هفته تمرینات ورزش مغزی بر هماهنگی حرکتی و کنترل بازداری کودکان با اختلال هماهنگی رشدی (DCD) انجام شد. روش پژوهش نیمه آزمایشی و با طرح پیش‌آزمون و پس‌آزمون با گروه کنترل انجام شد. جامعه آماری تحقیق حاضر کودکان دختر 10-۷ سال مبتلا یا مشکوک به اختلال هماهنگی رشدی شهر ارومیه بود که به صورت تصادفی هدفمند 36 نفر از آنها انتخاب و در دو گروه 18 نفری آزمایش و کنترل قرار گرفتند. آزمون هماهنگی حرکتی (KTK) جهت سنجش هماهنگی حرکتی (کفارد و شیلینگ ،2007) ، آزمون برو نرو جهت سنجش کنترل بازداری در پیش‌آزمون و پس‌آزمون به طور مشابه هم انجام دادند. گروه آزمایش 3 جلسه در هفته و به مدت 8 هفته در طی جلسات 30 دقیقه‌ای به تمرینات ورزش مغزی پرداختند. داده‌ها از طریق آزمون تحلیل کوواریانس یکراهه در نرم افزار Spss نسخه 26 تحلیل شد. نتایج نشان داد که با کنترل نمرة پیش‌آزمون، بین نمرات آزمون هماهنگی حرکتی و کنترل بازداری دو گروه آزمایش و کنترل در پس‌آزمون تفاوت معنادار وجود دارد (001/0p=). هشت هفته تمرینات ورزش مغزی باعث بهبود کنترل بازداری و هماهنگی کودکان دارای اختلال هماهنگی رشدی می‌شود؛ بنابراین پیشنهاد می‌شود، کودکان با اختلال هماهنگی رشدی در برنامه‌های ورزشی مبتنی بر ورزش مغزی زیاد شرکت کنند.

کلیدواژه‌ها

• ورزش مغزی
• هماهنگی حرکتی
• کنترل بازداری
• اختلال هماهنگی رشدی

عنوان مقاله [English]

Effectiveness Brain Gym Exercises on Motor Coordination, Inhibitory Control Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)

نویسندگان [English]

• Haifaa adil same jamel alkhdar ¹
• Mohammad taghi Aghdasi ²
• Amir Ghiami Rad ³

¹ PhD Student in Motor Behavior, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.

² Professor, Department of Motor Behavior, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.

³ Associate Professor, Department of Sports Biomechanics, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.

چکیده [English]

Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness brain gym exercises on motor coordination, inhibitory control children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). The research method was quasi-experimental with pre-test and post-test design with a control group. The statistical population of the present study was female children aged 7-10 years with or suspected of developmental coordination disorder in Urmia city. 36 of them were selected by purposeful random sampling and placed in two groups of 18: experimental and control. The motor coordination test (KTK) to measure motor coordination (Kiphard & Shilling, 2007) and the go-no-go test to measure inhibitory control were performed similarly in the pre-test and post-test. The experimental group did brain gym exercises 3 times a week for 8 weeks, during 30-minute sessions. The data was analyzed through one-way analysis of covariance in Spss software version 26. The results showed that by controlling the pre-test score, there is a significant difference between the scores of the motor coordination and inhibitory control of the two experimental and control groups in the post-test (p=0.001). Eight weeks of brain gym exercises improves inhibitory control and coordination in children with developmental coordination disorder; therefore, it is recommended that children with developmental coordination disorder participate in brain exercise-based exercise programs.
Keywords: Brain Exercise; Motor Coordination; Inhibitory Control; Developmental Coordination Disorder.
 
 
 
Extended Abstract

Introduction

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that significantly impairs a child’s ability to execute coordinated motor movements, resulting in slow, clumsy, or inaccurate actions and difficulties in acquiring new motor skills (Smits-Engelsman et al., 2022). Critically, DCD does not arise from primary intellectual, sensory, or neurological impairments (Cavalcante-Neto et al., 2021), but is rather attributed to dysfunctions in brain regions responsible for motor information processing (Purcell et al., 2024). Children with DCD frequently exhibit deficits in both gross and fine motor skills, often manifesting as postural instability and poor coordination, which hinder daily activities such as grasping objects, dressing, and writing (Li et al., 2024). Furthermore, DCD is highly comorbid with other neurodevelopmental conditions, including developmental language disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and specific learning disabilities (Blank et al., 2019; Landgren et al., 2021).
Beyond motor impairments, a major challenge hindering the academic progress of children with DCD is a deficit in executive functions (Eyvazi et al., 2018). Executive functions encompass a set of higher-order cognitive processes, including working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and planning. Among these, inhibitory control is paramount, referring to the ability to suppress prepotent thoughts and actions. A lack of inhibitory control often leads to impulsive responding before task comprehension is achieved (Eyvazi et al., 2018). Drawing upon neuroscientific principles, Brain Gym has been introduced as an intervention designed to enhance various cognitive and functional domains. Specifically, Brain Gym exercises are hypothesized to facilitate executive functions—such as attentional control and cognitive flexibility—thereby promoting learning efficiency and academic performance (International Brain Gym, 2008). Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the effectiveness of an 8-week Brain Gym intervention on motor coordination and inhibitory control in children with DCD.
Research Question
Extensive research has demonstrated that structured Brain Gym programs can effectively mitigate cognitive and functional impairments, with observed improvements persisting for several months post-intervention. However, a notable gap remains in the local literature, as no studies within this context have yet examined the impact of Brain Gym on enhancing response inhibition and motor coordination specifically in children diagnosed with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Given the existing body of evidence, the significance and necessity of the present study are underscored by several critical factors:
Prevalence and Impact: The documented prevalence of DCD, estimated to be between 11% and 14% among school-aged children (Sarıkül & Erdoğan, 2023), coupled with the frequent co-occurrence of cognitive, motor, and social deficits, mandates the adoption of innovative and effective motor interventions. Such programs are essential for engaging these children in physical activities, thereby mitigating the long-term, severe consequences of this disorder on their overall development.
Enhancing Participation: Due to the pervasive motor and cognitive challenges experienced by children with DCD, there is a frequent withdrawal from sports and even routine daily motor activities. By proposing an engaging and evidence-based motor intervention, this study aims to facilitate the improvement of these essential skills, thereby fostering greater physical and social inclusion.
Foundational Skill Development: Given the fundamental motor skill (FMS) deficits observed in children with DCD, and recognizing the critical role of FMS in the execution of advanced motor skills, sports participation, and social engagement, this research seeks to inform the development of effective interventions that promote these core motor abilities.
Research Gap: There is currently a paucity of evidence regarding the specific interplay between motor coordination and inhibitory control in children with DCD. Consequently, a significant lack of research persists in investigating the subsequent effects of Brain Gym on this particular relationship.

Literature Review

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that significantly impairs a child’s ability to execute coordinated motor movements, resulting in slow, clumsy, or inaccurate actions and difficulties in acquiring new motor skills (Smits-Engelsman et al., 2022). Critically, DCD is not primarily caused by intellectual, sensory, or neurological impairments (Cavalcante-Neto et al., 2021), but is instead attributed to dysfunctions in brain regions responsible for processing motor information (Wilson et al., 2023). While the reported prevalence of DCD in children ranges from 2% to 20%, internationally accepted figures currently stand at approximately 5–6% (Blank et al., 2019). DCD is characterized by deficits in both gross and fine motor skills; children with this disorder often exhibit postural instability and poor coordination, struggling with daily activities such as grasping objects, dressing, and writing.
Furthermore, DCD is frequently comorbid with other neurodevelopmental conditions, including developmental language disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and specific learning disabilities (Green et al., 2019). Beyond primary motor impairments, the limited mobility stemming from these deficits can reduce opportunities for physical and social engagement. This, in turn, elevates the risk of secondary health issues, such as obesity, and may lead to social challenges, including isolation, reduced participation, and difficulties in peer relationships (Miller et al., 2021). Moreover, individuals with DCD often experience internalizing symptoms, such as anxiety and depression (Draghi et al., 2021), which can persist into adulthood and significantly impact adaptive behavior and long-term mental health outcomes (Harrowell et al., 2018). Consequently, early diagnosis and targeted interventions are crucial for improving the long-term prognosis for individuals with DCD.

Methodology

The present study employed a quasi-experimental design featuring a pre-test/post-test approach with a control group. The target population comprised female children aged 7 to 10 years, diagnosed with or suspected of having Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), who were referred to the Royan Rehabilitation Clinic in Urmia, Iran. A total of 36 participants meeting the DCD diagnostic criteria were selected via convenience sampling. Participants were subsequently matched and assigned to either an experimental or a control group based on their scores from the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC) and their Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The required sample size was determined using GPower software (version 3.1.9.7). For a statistical power of 0.80 ($\beta = 0.20$) and a medium effect size ($f = 0.50$) for an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA), a minimum of 32 participants was required. To account for potential attrition, the final sample size was set at 36 participants. Since all data collection instruments were administered in person under the direct supervision of the researcher, no missing data were reported; consequently, all 36 participants were included in the final analysis.
Data analysis was conducted at two levels: descriptive and inferential. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were utilized to summarize the sample characteristics. Prior to conducting parametric tests, the Shapiro-Wilk test was employed to verify the normality of distributions, and Levene’s test was used to assess the homogeneity of variances. To determine the differences between groups in the post-test while controlling for pre-test scores, a one-way Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was performed. In the event of significant main effects, Bonferroni’s post-hoc test was applied for pairwise comparisons. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (Version 26), with the alpha level for statistical significance set at p* ≤ 0.05.

Results

The results indicated that the experimental group’s mean scores for motor coordination and inhibitory control significantly improved from pre-test to post-test, favoring the intervention group in the post-test phase. Regarding inhibitory control, ANCOVA results revealed a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups after adjusting for pre-test scores (p* <.05). Specifically, the Brain Gym intervention led to a more pronounced improvement in inhibitory control in the experimental group (*M* = 31.72) compared to the control group (*M* = 28.33). The calculated partial eta squared ($\eta_p^2 = 0.98$) indicated that 98% of the variance in inhibitory control scores was attributable to the intervention.
Furthermore, a statistically significant difference was observed between the groups in *overall motor coordination (p* <.05). The Brain Gym exercises resulted in a significant enhancement of motor coordination in the experimental group (*M* = 48.27) relative to the control group (*M* = 41.50). The effect size ($\eta_p^2 = 0.81$) suggested that the intervention accounted for 81% of the variance in overall motor coordination, thereby supporting the research hypothesis.
Additionally, highly significant differences were found across the four specific subcomponents of motor coordination (p* =.001): backward balancing, one-foot hopping (leaping), lateral jumping with feet together, and shifting wooden blocks. In all subcomponents, the experimental group demonstrated significantly higher mean scores than the control group, indicating that Brain Gym exercises effectively improved these specific motor abilities in children with DCD.

Discussion

 The findings of the present study demonstrate that the Brain Gym exercise program led to a significant improvement in motor coordination among children with DCD. A review of the existing literature indicates that only a limited number of studies have specifically investigated the impact of Brain Gym on the DCD population, making these results particularly noteworthy. As a form of perceptual-motor training, Brain Gym has the potential to enhance both motor and cognitive domains simultaneously. According to perceptual-motor integration theories, individuals improve their performance by establishing greater synergy between visual, auditory, and kinesthetic information (Wilson et al., 2015).
Furthermore, the results indicated that the Brain Gym intervention had a positive and significant effect on the participants' inhibitory control. This outcome may be interpreted through the lens of neuroplasticity; improvements in response suppression typically follow the modulation of neural activity within the prefrontal cortex and its associated executive networks (Zhu et al., 2024). The underlying mechanism likely involves an increase in hippocampal volume and elevated levels of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), which collectively facilitate enhanced cognitive processing. Consequently, Brain Gym represents an innovative, feasible, and patient-centered intervention. It serves as a promising adjunctive therapy that may play a crucial role in mitigating cognitive and motor deficits in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that an eight-week Brain Gym intervention leads to significant improvements in both inhibitory control and motor coordination among children with DCD. These findings suggest that Brain Gym, through its focus on perceptual-motor integration, can effectively mitigate the core motor and cognitive deficits associated with this disorder. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that clinicians, educators, and physical therapists incorporate Brain Gym principles into regular exercise programs and rehabilitative protocols for children with Developmental Coordination Disorder to enhance their functional outcomes.
Acknowledgments
The researchers wish to express their sincere gratitude to all the children and their families for their participation and cooperation. We also extend our special thanks and appreciation to the clinical staff of the Royan Rehabilitation Clinic in Urmia, Iran, for their invaluable support and assistance throughout the course of this study.
 

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

• Brain Exercise
• Motor Coordination
• Inhibitory Control
• Developmental Coordination Disorder